Chapter 5

Formation Pressures
 FORMATION PORE PRESSURE
• Fluid pressure in the pore, depend on:
– Fluid density
– Depth
• Important parameter due:
– Will influence casing design & mud weight selection
– Will increase stuck pipe chances & well control problem
– Able to predict & detect high pressure zone  blow out ?
• Pore pressure gradient : 0.433 – 0.50 psi/ft with average of
0.45 psi/ft  normal pressure gradient
• Below or above normal  abnormal pressure gradient
Pore Pressure Profiles
Mud density vs pore pressure gradient
Typical Formation Pressures Profile
 OVERBURDEN PRESSURE (Geostatic Pressure)

• Vertical pressure at any depth and function of

mass of rock & fluid above any depth.
• Depend on rock bulk density (average density of
rock & fluid above the depth)
rb = rf f+ rm(1 – f)
rb = porous sediment density
rm = rock matrix density
rf = fluid @ pore density
f = porosity
• Typical overburden pressure gradient : 1.0 psi/ft
Formation Pressures Profile
 ABNORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE
• Pore pressure above or below normal pore pressure
– < 0.45 psi/ft  subnormal
– > 0.45 psi/ft  overpressured  compaction
• Exist if pores rock sealed in place to prevent
equalisation of pressure by permeability barrier
resulting from physical or chemical action
• Physical seal may be formed by gravity faulting @
deposition
• Chemical seal may be due to calcium carbonate
deposited, restricting permeability or during organic
material compaction
Overpressure
Underpressure
Overpressure Generation Mechanism
 Origin of Subnormal Formation Pressure

1. Thermal expansion
2. Formation foreshortening
3. Depletion
4. Precipitation
5. Potentiometric surface
6. Epeirogenic movement
 Origin of Subnormal Formation Pressure
6 major mechanism:
• Thermal Expansion
– Sediment & pore fluid buried, T rise
– Fluid expand  density decrease & pressure reduce
• Formation Foreshortening
– Compression  upper bed bend upward & lower bed
bend downward
– Intermediate bed expand to fill void  subnormal
pressure zone
• Depletion
– Hc & water produced from competent formation  no
subsidence  subnormal pressure zone
Formation Foreshortening
 Origin of Subnormal Formation Pressure
• Precipitation
– In arid area, deeper water table  reducing hydrostatic
pressure
• Potentiometric Surface
– Defined by height to which confined water will rise in
well drilled into same aquifer
– Refers to formation structural relief
• Epeirogenic Movement
– Change in elevation  abnormal pressure in formation
open to surface laterally.
– If outcrop raised  overpressure but if lowered it 
subnormal pressure
Piezometric Surface
Epeirogenic movement relating to reservoir A & B
 Overpressured Formation Origin

8 major mechanisme:
1. Incomplete Sediment Compaction
2. Faulting
3. Phase Changes
4. Massive Rocksalt Deposition
5. Salt Diaperism
6. Tectonic Compression
7. Repressuring
8. Hydrocarbon Generation
Overpressured
 Overpressured Formation Origin
• Incomplete sediment compaction
– In rapid burial of low K clays or shales  no time for fluid
to escape  trapped fluid will support overburden
• Faulting
– Fault redistribute sediment & place permeable zone
opposite impermeable zone  barrier to fluid movement 
prevent water expelled from shale  high porosity & P
• Phase changes during compaction
– Mineral change phase under increasing P (gypsum 
anhydrite + free water, montmorillonite  illite + free
water)
– Free water trapped  generate overpressured
Barrier to flow & overpressured sands generation
 Overpressured Formation Origin
• Massive rock salt deposition
– Salt impermeable  underlying fluid overpressured
• Salt diaperism
– Upward movement of low density salt dome due to bouyancy  disturb
normal layering sediment  overpressured
• Tectonic compression
– Lateral compression  uplifting sediment overpresured
• Repressuring from deeper level
– Fluid migration from high to low pressure zone @ shallower depth due
to faulting or poor casing/cement job
• Hydrocarbon generation
– Deposited shale contain organic material
•  gas (trapped)  overpressured or
• salt  precipitated  seal  overpressured
 Drilling Problems @ Abnormal Pressure Zone

• Underbalance
• Borehole Collapse
• Formation fluid influx

• Overbalance
• Low ROP (chip hold down effect)
• Formation Fracture  lost circulation
• Differential Sticking
 Transition Zone
• Zone between normal and overpressured zone
• Seal or caprock on overpressured zone
– Shale Caprock
– Salt Caprock
• Indication to overpressured zone
• Drilling crew need to monitor: drilling parameter,
mud & cutting
• Generally low K  no influx @ transition zone
• aaaa
Transition Zones

Shallow : normal
Deeper: overpressure
 EXERCISE
1. From following pore pressure data, plot P-Z diagram
2. Calculate pore pressure gradient from surface; to 8000ft; to 8500ft and to
9500ft. Determine mud weight required to drill hole section : down to
8000ft, down to 8500ft and down to 9500ft (overburden gradient 1
psi/ft). Assume that 200 psi overbalance is required.
3. If mud weight used to drill down to 8000ft were used to drill into the
formation pressures at 8500ft what would be the over/underbalanced at
this depth.
4. Assuming that correct mud weight I sused for drilling at 8500ft but fluid
level in annulus dropped to 500ft below drill floor, due to inadequate
hole fill up during tripping. What would be the effect on bottom hole
pressure at 8500ft.
5. What type of fluid is contained in formation below 8500ft
Prediction and Detection of Abnormal Pressures
• Predictive Techniques
• Geophysical Techniques
– Used to identify geological condition  overpressured (salt dome)
– Seismic to identify transition zone & fluid content (gas)
• Offset Data
– Mud weight used, drilling problems (stuck pipe, lost circulation, kick)
• Detection Techniques
• Drilling Parameters
– Observing drilling parameter (e.g ROP)
• Drilling Mud Parameter
– Monitoring overpressured zone effct on mud (e.g. T, influx)
• Drilled Cuttings
– Examined cutting  to identify cutting from sealing zone
Overpressure
Prediction/
Detection
 Detection Based on Drilling Parameter
• Basic principle:
– Formation compaction increase with depth  ROP
decrease with depth
– Transition zone ore porous than normal zone  ROP
increase
– In transition zone differential pressure between Pmud &
Ppore decrease  ROP increase
• Relationship between ROP & formation pressure:
– “d” exponent
– Other drilling parameter
• Torque: increase as overbalance decrease
 “d” exponent
R = aNe(W/B)d
R = ROP, ft/hr
N = RPM
W = WOB, lb
B = bit diameter, inch
a = matrix strength constant
d = formation drillability
e = rotary speed exponent
 “d” exponent
• “d” exponent equation:
d = log (R/60N) / log (12W/106B)
• Bit drill into overpressured zone  ROP increase  d-exponent decrease
• Plot d-exponent vs depth  overpressured zone ?
• With mud weight consideration:
dc = d (rn / ra)
rn = normal mud weight
ra = actual mud weight
gf = go – [go – (gf)n][dco / dcn]1.2
gf = fluid pressure gradient, psi/ft
go = overburden gradient, psi/ft
dco = observed dc at given depth
dcn = dc from normal trend at given depth
Nomogram for
‘d’ Exponent
calculation
‘d’ & dc
Exponent
 EXERCISE#1
Depth ROP RPM WOB ppg
Mud loggers recorded data on 12 ¼” (ft) (ft/hr) (1000lb)
hole section. Normal formation 7500 125 120 38 9.5
gradient 0.45 psi/ft, overburden 7600 103 120 38 9.5
gradient 1.0 psi/ft and normal 7700 77 110 38 9.5
mud weight 9.5 ppg 7800 66 110 38 9.6

1. Plot d and dc exponent and 7900 45 110 35 9.6

determine whether there area any 8000 37 110 37 9.8

indication of overpressured zone 8100 40 110 35 9.8

8200 42 110 33 9.9
2. If overpressured zone exists,
8300 41 100 33 10
what is the depth of transition
8400 44 100 38 10.25
zone top depth 8500 34 100 38 10.25
3. Estimate formation pressure at 8600 33 100 40 11
8600 ft 8700 32 110 42 11
 EXERCISE#2
Depth ROP RPM WOB ppg
(ft) (ft/hr) (1000lb)
Geolograph and bit records from 500 95 120 70 9.2

a control well were used with the 1000 115 120 75 9.2

dc-exponent principle to 1500 75 120 70 9.2

determine the formation 2000 105 120 65 9.2

2500 100 120 70 9.2
pressures. The data are shown 3000 75 120 70 9.2
below. Calculate and plot the dc- 3500 100 120 75 9.3

exponent. 4000 90 100 55 9.4

4500 90 100 55 9.4
5000 60 100 55 9.4
5500 60 100 55 9.4
6000 53 90 55 9.4
6500 46 90 55 9.4
7000 31 120 55 9.4
7500 20.2 90 55 9.4
8000 19.6 90 55 9.4
8500 16.3 90 55 9.4
 EXERCISE#2
Depth ROP RPM WOB ppg Depth ROP RPM WOB ppg
(ft) (ft/hr) (1000lb) (ft) (ft/hr) (1000lb)
9000 16.2 90 55 9.4 12,200 8.8 60 40 15.3
9500 14.3 90 55 9.5 12,400 8.1 60 40 15.3
9800 14.2 90 55 9.7 12,600 8.0 60 45 15.3
10,000 16.8 70 55 9.8 12,800 7.0 60 45 15.3
10,100 15.0 100 60 10.8 13,000 5.8 70 45 15.4
10,200 14.7 100 60 11.2 13,200 5.4 70 45 15.4
10,300 14.7 90 55 12.0 13,400 4.8 60 50 15.4
10,400 13.0 80 55 12.8 13,600 4.5 60 50 15.4
10,500 14.2 70 55 13 13,800 4 60 45 15.4
10,600 14.2 60 50 13.2 14,000 4 60 45 15.4
10,800 13.6 60 55 13.6 14,200 5 60 50 15.4
11,000 13.0 60 45 14 14,400 4.1 60 50 15.4
11.200 13.0 60 50 14.4 14,600 4.1 50 50 15.4
11,400 11.0 50 50 14.8 14,800 5.1 50 60 15.5
11,600 10.8 50 45 15.2 15,000 6.9 50 60 15
11,800 8.8 60 40 15.3 15,200 7.6 50 50 5
12,000 8.8 60 40 15.3 15,400 8 50 50 15.6
15,600 8 60 50 15.7
EXERCISE#2
Depth ROP RPM WOB ppg
(ft) (ft/hr) (1000lb)
15,800 9.1 60 50 15.9
16,000 9.2 60 50 15.0
 Detection based on Mud Parameters
• Mud properties changes as overpressured zone entered; i.e.:
– Mud gas cutting increase (monitored by mudlogger using
GC)
• From shale cutting
• Direct influx
• Swabbing @ pulling back drill string at connection
– Mud weight decrease
• By influx (gas/water)
• Measured by radioactive densiometer
– Flowline temperature increase
• Under compacted clays with very high fluid content  higher T
• Flowline T decrease @ drilling through normal pressured zones and
increase as overpressured zone encountered
Flowline Temperature
 Detection based on Drilled Cutting
• Larger cutting due to low pressure differential
• By cutting compaction degree :
– Shale cutting density
• Normal zone: shale bulk density increase as depth increases
• Density decrease  undercompacted zone  overpressured zone
– Shale factor
• Methylene blue dye test  reactive montmorillonite clay present 
compaction degree
• Higher montmorillonite  lighter density  undercompacted shale 
overpressured zone
– Shale slurry resistivity
• Compaction increases with depth, water expelled  conductivity
reduced
• Plot resistivity vs depth  uniform increase, unless undercompacted
zone  resistivity decrease
 Detection based on Drilled Cutting
• Shale bulk density:
rs = rw2 / (2rw – r)
rs = shale bulk density
rw = water density
r = mud balance reading point

 To confirm overpressured zone; run wireline

logging and pressure survey, such as sonic, density
& neutron log
Bulk Density
Resistivity
Pressure Estimation @ Well Drilling Planning
 Formation Fracture Pressure
• Well design  borehole pressure lie between formation pore
pressure & formation fracture pressure
• If pressure inside borehole < formation pore pressure 
formation fluid influx
• If pressure inside borehole > formation fracture pressure 
formation fracture  lost circulation
• Fracture propagate perpendicular to least principal stress
(pressure > least principal stress)
• Pressure @ fracture can be determine by (run immediately
after casing set & cemented):
– Leakoff test
– Limit test
– Formation breakdown test
 Formation Breakdown Mechanism
Fracture will propagate perpendicular to least principal stress
Leak Off Test
 Leakoff Test / Limit Test / Breakdown Test Procedure

1. Run & cement casing string

2. Run in drill string & bit for next hole section & drill out
casing shoe
3. Drill 5-10 ft new formation below casing shoe
4. Pull bit back into casing shoe
5. Close BOPs
6. Apply pressure to well (by pumping mud). Stop
pumping & record pressure in bore hole. Pump mud
(same volume) second time & record pressure
7. Repeat step 6
8. Plot mud volume pumped vs pressure
9. Test complete, bleed off pressure @ surface, open BOP
& drill ahead
Fracture test (P vs volume plot) for ductile rock
A : fracture start, B : fracture complete
 Leakoff Test

• Used to determine pressure at which rock just start

to break down or leakoff
• Test stop when pressure no longer continue to
increase linearly as mud pumped into the borehole
(C) formation start to breakdown
Leak Off Test
Leak Off Test
Limit Test & Formation Breakdown Test

• Limit Test
– Used to determine whether rock will stand
specific pressure (maximum pressure formation
will be exposed to whilst drilling next borehole
section)
• Formation Breakdown Test
– Used to determine pressure at which rock
completely breaks down
Limit Test
 Leakoff Test Calculation
• Pressure @ start fracture (A) = leakoff pressure

• Max. mud weight (psi/ft) = pressure at shoe when leakoff occurs / TVD @ shoe
= pressure at surface & mud hydrostatic pressure / TVD @ shoe
• Safety factor = 05 ppg (0.026 psi/ft)
• Exercise
– Surface pressure at leakoff = 940 psi
– Casing shoe depth = 5010 ft
– Mud weight used = 10.2 ppg
– Calculate maximum allowable mud weight
 Leakoff Test Calculation
• Mud equivalent circulating density (ECD)
ECD = (rm + Pd) / 0.052D
ECD = ppg
rm = mud weight, ppg
Pd = annulus frictional pressure drop at given circulating rate, psi
D = depth, ft
• ECD : mud density used so that no leak off below
casing shoe
 Leakoff Test Calculation

• Maximum allowable annular surface pressure

(MAASP)
= maximum allowable pressure at formation just
below casing shoe minus mud hydrostatic pressure
at formation just below casing shoe
 Exercise#1
Casing was set at 10,000 ft in a well. The operator performs a
leak off test to determine the fracture gradient at 10,000 ft. If
the mud weight in the well was 11.2 Ib/gal, what is the
fracture gradient at the casing seat?

Exercise#2
Use the following leak off data to determine the formation
fracture gradient. Casing is set at 12,000 ft and the mud
weight is 13.9 lb/gal.
Volume pumped, bbl Pressure, psi
0 0
1 175
2 400
2½ 590
3 680
3½ 760
4 650
4½ 740
5 830
5½ 920
6 1,010
6½ 1,100
7 1,190
7½ 1,260
8 1,280
8½ 1,300
 Fracture Pressure Calculation
• Practice: estimate from leakoff test @ offset well
• Eaton :
Gf = [Go – Gp][u / (1 – u)] + Gp
Gf = fracture gradient, psi/ft
Go = overburden gradient, psi/ft
u = poisson’s ratio
Gp = pore pressure gradient, psi/ft
• Matthews & Kelly:
Gf = G p + s K i / D
s = maximum stress, psi = S - P
D = depth, ft
Ki = matrix stress coefficient (chart)
S = overburden pressure
P = pore pressure
Poissons
Ratio

sl / sp = u / (1-u)

sl = least principal stress

sp = applied pressure
 Exercise

• Given:
– TVD = 8500 ft
– Pore pressure = 5300 psi
– Overburden pressure = 7800 psi
– Poisson’s ratio = 0.28
• Calculate:
– Fracture pressure at 8500ft using Eaton equation
 Pore & Fracture Prediction Procedure

1. Analyse & plot log data or d-exponent data from offset well
2. Draw normal trend line, and extrapolate below transition zone
3. Calculate typical overburden gradient using density logs from
offset well
4. Calculate formation pore pressure gradient from equation
5. Use known formation & fracture gradient and overburden data
to calculate typical poisson’s ratio plot
6. Calculate fracture gradient at any depth
Pore pressure & fracture gradient used
for select casing seat

Line A: 18ppg, any open hole <

10200’ fracture  protective casing
/liner must be run to seal off shallower
section before 18 ppg mud used to drill
below 10200’

Line B; to drill to 10200’, 16ppg mud

must be used. This mud will breakdwon
any open hole about 8300’ (line C) 
defines protective casing /liner setting
depth

To drill to 8300’, 13 ppg mud required

(line E). This mud will breakdown any
open hole above 2500’  defines
surface casing shoe.
• Thanks
Regional Faulting
LOT Exercise
DEPTH
FT
Nor mally Pr essur ed ( Br ine) Zone

Tr ansit ion Zone ( Shale)

O ver pr essur ed gas zone

G WC

O ver pr essur ed wat er zone

PRESSURE PSI