Restoration Ecology

1. What is restoration ecology?

 Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery

of an ecosystem that has been:
- degraded,
- damaged, or
- destroyed.
A very broad definition; but …
• it shows clearly that restoration is not something theoretical
without any practical obligations,

• has to do with active engagement and intervention in current

social and environmental affairs.
2. Is there a problem?

 We rely on the integrity of the Earth system for our continued existence
as a species, along with many others.

 Sustainability has therefore become an increasingly important issue in

thinking about the future.

 As early as the 1970s Meadows et al. (1972) realized that there are limits
to (economic) growth, but it was not until 1987 that the so-called
Brundtland report (WCED, 1987) put sustainability firmly on the
political agenda.
 The practice of ecological restoration and the science of
restoration ecology are going to be major tools available to
humankind for mitigating, arresting and reversing the adverse
effects human activity has had on the Earth system,
particularly since the Industrial Revolution.
 The challenges that we face include, among others:
(i) food, water and energy security,
(ii) loss of biodiversity,
(iii) global climate change, and
(iv) sea-level rise.
 The first two (i.e., (i) food, water and energy security,
and (ii) loss of biodiversity) are a result of direct human
pressures, with increasing population sizes demanding
more resources;

 The last two (i.e., (iii) global climate change, and

(iv) sea-level rise ) are a result of amplification of the
positive loops of natural feedback mechanisms, with
the production of greenhouse gases from fossil stocks
as the forcing function (Lovelock 1991).
Is there a problem?

Near Adigrat
Aje – around Shashamene
ASNP
 What is lost/regained?

Pasture Land?
BD?

Livelihood?
 What is lost/regained?

Water?

Pasture
Who benefits?
Water - Livelihood
 …

Environment: Resource Pool

Resource: A tri-part interaction;

Nature

Man Culture
…

Man
 Plays a vital role in resource development because he utilizes
nature’s creations and transforms them into products that
satisfy his wants and needs.
…

Nature

 produced countless substances through an

evolutionary process (cf. “ecological theatre for an
evolutionary play”);

 placed no particular value on substances;

 designated no particular use for substances (cf.

“natural resource” – what is it?);
…

Culture
 involves all the changes in environment that take place as man
works with them.
 includes man’s wants and desires
◦ skills and know-how
◦ implements and handicrafts
◦ science and technology
◦ arts and institutions
◦ language and religious beliefs, etc.
 …

 The relationship between social, economical and environmental

sustainability

Sustainability: A tri-part interaction (cf Resource)

Economy (Growth, Efficiency, Stability)

Society Environment
(Poverty, (Biodiversity/Resilience Natural resources)
Institutions/Inclusion , Consultation/Empowerment)
• Economic sustainability is based on the concept of
maximizing income while at least maintaining the capital.

• The social component of sustainability seeks to maintain the

resilience of social and cultural systems and their capacity to
withstand shocks.

• The environmental component focuses on the resilience

of biological and physical systems.
• The practice of ecological restoration and the science of
restoration ecology are going to be major tools available to
humankind for mitigating, arresting and reversing the adverse
effects human activity has had on the Earth system, particularly
since the Industrial Revolution.
So,
• What do we mean by terms such as ecological restoration and
restoration ecology?

• How are they related?

• How do they fit into society?

3. Ecosystem Degradation and Loss
• Ecosystems and habitats (the physical and biological environment used by a
particular species) are routinely degraded, and sometimes destroyed, by
human activities.

o Contamination of air, water, soil, and organisms by pollutants is a major

form of degradation.

o Pollution can range from relatively innocuous materials such as sediment

that smothers the bottom of a stream to extraordinarily toxic chemicals that
are lethal at small doses.
• Sometimes populations are eliminated outright by pollution,
especially by pesticides; more often, pollution represents a stress
that reduces population fitness.

• People also construct many physical structures that may degrade

habitat quality for certain species.
E.g., roads – they impede the movement of some organisms, and, worse
still, some organisms are killed by vehicles.

• dams and fences are likely to be absolute barriers to the

movements of some species.
Ecosystems can also be degraded by altering physical processes:
For example, People can:

1. accelerate soil erosion, which causes silt pollution and

decreases site productivity;

2. decrease the frequency of fire in ecosystems where it is a

natural event, or increase the frequency of fire where it is
uncommon; and

3. remove too much water from ecosystems where it is needed.

• Deforestation is a major form of ecosystem destruction that has
profound consequence for biodiversity because forests cover less
than 6% of the earth’s total surface area, yet are habitat for a
majority of the earth’s species.
• Many arid and semiarid ecosystems are being degraded by a
process called desertification, primarily the product of overgrazing
by livestock and unsound cultivation.

• Myriad of species occur in these environments and are at risk

because of desertification.
• Many aquatic ecosystems have been destroyed by profound
changes in their hydrologic regime imposed by filling, draining,
dredging, damming, channelizing, and diking.

• Rivers and wetlands have been especially vulnerable to these

alterations. For this reason and because they represent a small
portion of the earth’s area, the species tied to these ecosystems are
in considerable jeopardy.
Fragmentation
• the process by which a natural landscape is broken up into small
parcels of natural ecosystems isolated from one another in a matrix
of other ecosystems, usually dominated by human activities.

• can diminish biodiversity because small, isolated patches of

habitat have fewer species than larger, less-isolated species.
This happens because
1. small patches have less environmental heterogeneity than large
patches,

2. some area-sensitive species and uncommon species are unlikely

to be found in small patches,
3. small patches have small populations that are more vulnerable
to local extinction,

4. immigration into populations occupying isolated patches is

limited, and

5. isolated patches are less likely to be used by species that

routinely travel among species.
• Besides affecting biodiversity by affecting patch size and
increasing isolation, fragmentation also creates more edges
between different types of ecosystems.

• These edge zones represent degraded habitat for many species.

4. The scope of restoration ecology

 Restoration ecology is the science of ecological restoration,

(recently re-defined as above):

- ‘the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that

has been degraded, damaged or destroyed’
 Ecological restoration will continue to provide important
insights into the way that ecological communities are
assembled and ecosystems function.

 There is no question that restoration ecology is the wave of

the future’ (Niering 1997a).

 Conservation biologist Truman Young (2000), wrote

‘restoration ecology is the long-term future of conservation
biology’,
 Ecological restoration can focus on restoring:
◦ entire ecosystems or communities, or on
◦ the rescue, or re-introduction of certain target species.

 Ecosystems, communities and populations function in a

landscape context (Bell et al. 1997)

 Restoration efforts have profited much from landscape

concepts, such as spatial heterogeneity and connectivity, and
associated dynamic models.
Objectives of ecological restoration:

 The goal of a particular restoration project may involve

the return of an ecosystem to an approximation of its
structural and functional condition before damage
occurred,
- it can also include the creation of a new

ecosystem that had never existed before on the

site selected for restoration.
 Restoration ecology, therefore, often requires the
evaluation of ecological concepts and approaches in a
modern societal context.

 Higgs (1997) argued that good restoration requires an

expanded view that includes:
- historical, social, cultural, political, aesthetic and
moral aspects.
 A restoration scientist cannot just formulate restoration goals
that are unacceptable for other land users, or that have no
backing by politicians and public opinion in general.

 A restoration scientist should gather as much information as

possible on the historical development and anthropogenic
transformation of the ecosystems and landscapes to be
restored.
 The restoration of damaged ecosystems (just as in
health care) should start with a good diagnosis of the
problem,
 followed by a suitable trajectory to repair the damage
or otherwise eliminate the complaints by rebuilding
new structures.
 The way towards such a goal demands the recognition
that there is no one paradigm or context for setting
restoration goals, and
 that ecologists need to develop probabilistic laws,
recognizing that developing ecosystems may
undergo rapid transitions between different meta-
stable states.
 Note: distinguish between the words:
◦ ecological restoration (for the actual practice), and

◦ restoration ecology (for the fundamental science

upon which these actions should be based).
 Ecological restoration differs from
◦ rehabilitation,
◦ ecological reclamation,
◦ ecological engineering and landscaping,
in that all aspects of ecosystem structure and function
are considered and addressed.
Objectives:
• Hobbs and Norton (1996) suggested a number of reasons why
restoration might be carried out:
(i) to enhance conservation values in protected landscapes,
(ii) to enhance conservation values in productive landscapes,
(iii) to improve productive capability in degraded productive
lands, and
(iv) to restore highly degraded but localized sites such as mine
sites.
• The above reasons may be consistent with the schema
devised by van Diggelen et al. (2001), who
distinguished three levels of ambition of programmes
aimed at reversing degradation of ecosystems.
1. The first and most ambitious level could be called
true restoration and consists of a reconstruction of a
previous situation or self-sustaining target.
- This includes not only the re-establishment of
former functions but also of the characteristic
species and communities.
 The principal problem with taking this absolutist stance is
that, if based on past environments and not current or
future circumstances, it is likely to be unsustainable.


If we accept, however, that we are intending to re-instate
the maximum prior biodiversity, within maximized
ecosystem services, then this term is again useful.
2. The second level is often called rehabilitation and
consists of the restoration of certain ecosystem
functions (Mitsch & Jørgenson 1989, Wali 1992),
such as
- the reduction of flood risks by creating the
development of water-retention systems, or
- restarting peat growth to fix CO2 in peat layers.
 This option would make parts of the landscape as a
whole more natural, but it would not necessarily
result in a significant increase in biodiversity in the
whole landscape.
3. The third level is sometimes called reclamation
and consists of attempts to increase biodiversity per
se.
 The landscape as a whole would benefit from an
implementation of such measures on a large scale but
it usually does not contribute much to the protection
of endangered red list species.
 The above-mentioned goals are generally associated
with different scales, especially in densely populated
areas where most restoration activities take place.

 Although it is technically sometimes possible to really

recreate some former communities (true restoration) on
a local small scale and at high cost, this is generally
impossible at the landscape scale because of land use
conflicts, long-distance effects of other activities and
lack of public support.
• Reclamation is often the only realistic option at the
landscape scale.

• Rehabilitation seems to be practical at an intermediate

scale, often as a network within a certain landscape, for
example riparian restoration (Kentula 1997).

• We suggest that simple recreation of past species lists

is unlikely to succeed: must be taken fully into account
process and connectivity, along with biodiversity.
5. Ecosystem description

 Before we can decide a target, we need to know, and

be explicit about, what it is we are aiming for.

 We need a clear description of essential attributes

of our target ecosystem.
Set of attributes to be considered for measurement and
manipulation in restoration programmes are:

1 composition: species present and their relative abundances;

2 structure: vertical arrangement of vegetation and soil

components (living and dead);

3 pattern: horizontal arrangement of system components;

4 heterogeneity: a complex variable made of components 1–3
(i.e., composition, structure and pattern);

5 function: performance of basic ecosystem processes (energy,

water, nutrient transfers);

6 dynamics and resilience: successional processes, rate and

amplitude of recovery from disturbance.
7. Targets in restoration ecology

 Three simple types of goals could be considered for

designing restoration prescriptions:
1. Species
2. Ecosystem functions
3. Ecosystem services
7.1. Species

 When we take a species-level approach to designing a

restoration scheme we may use a number of targets:
• keystone species: related to particular functions;

• endangered species: often obscure as to wider function, but

may be charismatic;

• assemblages: most likely to be summative as to total

ecosystem status.
 This approach may rescue particular species from

extinction, locally or globally, and could definitely

be said to increase biodiversity, but there are some

potentially serious pitfalls.

7.2. Ecosystem functions

 This level of analysis offers the potential to

recognize explicitly the need for different
components of ecosystems to be connected
and working effectively.
The types of processes and pools which may be examined
are:

• material and energy flows, e.g. rates of transmission

within, into and from the ecosystem, between biotic
and abiotic components, change in pool sizes;

• biotic components, e.g. standing crop, species

inventories, trophic connection, nutrient pools;
The types of processes and pools which may be examined are:

• abiotic components, e.g. nutrient pools, active

components in nutrient cycling;

• ecosystem architecture, e.g. physical development

and arrangement of the system.
 The overall problem of what an ecosystem is
remains, leading to boundary problems, but this can
be resolved by taking, for example, the catchment
(watershed) to be the geographical context in which
this activity should take place.
7.3. Ecosystem services

 We have already outlined the four types of ecosystem

service upon which human society depends – these
are in many ways a combination of species and
function classifications outlined above, but they may
be easier to comprehend for a wider audience.
8.Which type of target to choose?

 Which restoration target to choose depends on the

level of ambition of the project.

 If true restoration is chosen as a goal, a reference

ecosystem is essential as a template for the
restoration scheme to be based upon.
 The study of reference systems provides several
types of relevant information. They enable the study
and understanding of key processes that are relevant
for the restoration trajectory.

 They provide some kind of yardstick that can be

used both to estimate the degree of degradation of a
disturbed ecosystem and the distance between the
actual situation and the end point of the restoration.
8.1. Historical reference ecosystems
 One of the most superficially attractive targets
for restoration projects is to re-instate the
ecosystem ‘prior to degradation’ (Egan &
Howell 2001).
 A number of sources of information may be
available to varying degrees to allow the
development of a restoration prescription,
including:
- historic phytogeography,
- less disturbed remnants on-site,
- similar sites,
- historical accounts and museum collections, and
- Palaeo-ecological evidence.
8.2. Modern reference ecosystems

 Of more immediate practical use is the

deployment of a reference system based on
modern likely equivalents:

 What would be here in this defined topographic

unit if degradation had not taken place?
8.3. Functional targets

 When using functional targets we have some idea of

the gross parameters we have to measure (primary
productivity, energy flows, hydrological regime), and
success in restoring these functions indicates a certain
level of integration.

 Unfortunately for the restorationist, they are nearly all

emergent properties, and not directly capable of
manipulation.
8.4. Ecosystem service to society targets

 Setting our targets from the various

categories above in an ecosystem-service
context is the only way in which we are
going to produce truly self-sustaining
restored ecosystems.
 ‘Major ecological restoration will not be
undertaken unless human society approves the
goals and objectives of restoration.

In addition, restoration will not persist unless

human society has sufficient esteem for the
restored ecosystem to protect its integrity.’
(Cairns, 2000)
Which type of target to choose? (Contd.)

 Which restoration target to choose depends on the

level of ambition of the project.

 If true restoration is chosen as a goal, a reference

ecosystem is essential as a template for the
restoration scheme to be based upon.
 The study of reference systems provides several
types of relevant information.

 They enable the study and understanding of key

processes that are relevant for the restoration
trajectory.
Information available for different types of reference
system.

Availability of information

Type of system Present status Memory Records

Forensic

Current + + + +
Recent - + + +
Past – – + +
Prehistoric – – – +

+, Available; −, not available.

Suitability of ecosystem attributes to measuring the degree of restoration

success at different ambition levels.

Attribute Ambition level

Reclamation Rehabilitation Restoration
 Characteristic assemblage
of species − − +
 Indigenous species − − +
 All functional trophic groups − − +
 Normal functioning of cycles − + +
 Appropriate physical
environment + + +
 Integrated into a larger
landscape + + −
 External threats eliminated
or reduced + + −
 Resilience to perturbation + + −
 Self-sustaining + − −

+, Suitable; −, not suitable

 If the ambition level is rehabilitation or

reclamation, the demands are less strict and one

might proceed without reference systems and just

choose the function one likes to enhance.

 Ecological Foundations to Restoration

To explore which of the fundamental ecological theories,

established long before the emergence of restoration ecology,
have gained new importance in this era when ecological
restoration is rapidly gaining prominence:

• Interactions at the Landscape, Ecosystem, Community and populations

Further reference reading