Evolution —The Theory and Its

Supporting Evidence

Definition of the term

evolution Evolution is the gradual change of living
organism from simple life form to more complex form over a long
period of time.

The origin of life is supported by a number of theories

Eg. folk tale, religious belief , Myths, scientific research

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 THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF
LIFE
1.Special Creation Theory
This is a religious view of the origin of life as
narrated in the Holy bible and the Koran. It
states that there is a supreme being called God

It states that the universe and all living

organisms were created in a perfect form by
God.
 Life was brought into existence by God
 Life forms were created in their perfect form
and remain unchanged overtime
N/B
 This theory is based on ones faith and cannot
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 Chemical Evolution( by Stanly Miller )
This is the scientific view of the origin of life on earth. That life
began through a catalytic effect of lighting which brought
together elements like carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen
to form simple molecules like water, ammonia and methane.
 Further combination of these compounds resulted in the
formation of complex, self-replicating molecules.eg DNA
Successive replication of these molecules resulted in the
formation of simple life forms that resembled viruses and
bacteria.

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Assumptions of the theory
 Life came into existence through combination of chemicals.
 Initial life forms of life were primitive and have changed
overtime to their current complex forms.
Strength of the theory
 There is a progressive increase in their complexity of overtime
 Scientific research through experiments, artifacts and fossils
support this theory.

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 ORGANIC EVOLUTION

 What is meant by organic evolution?

Organic evolution is the emergence of organisms gradually
from pre-existing ones over a long period of time.

 Organic evolution suggests that the present species of

organisms developed from pre-existing earlier forms as a result
of accumulation of small changes in the body structure and
complexity over a long period of time.

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EVIDENCE FOR ORGANIC
EVOLUTION

 Fossil rerecords

 Comparative embryology

 Comparative anatomy

 Cell biology

 Comparative serology

 Geographical distribution

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 FOSSIL RECORDS

What are fossils?

 Fossils are remains of ancestral forms of organisms that
were preserved in naturally occurring materials such as
sedimentary rocks over a long period of time.
 The study of fossils is called paleontology
 Petrifaction is process by which hard plant/animal parts
change in to rock i.e bones, teeth, shells and woody
stems
 They give a direct evidence of what existed at
aparticular geological era

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Importance of fossil records
 Give evidence of type of plants and animals that
existed long ago.
 Give evidence of structural changes that have
taken over a long period of time.
Limitations of fossil records
1. Rapid decomposition of dead organisms cannot
fossilize/soft parts cant fossilize/scavenging
animals
2. Missing links
3. Distortion of parts during sedimentation
4. Destruction of fossils by geological activates like
volcanic eruptions
5. Sudden appearance of new species in absence of
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intermediate.
 COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY

 Vertebrate embryos have similar

morphological features during their early
developmental stages which suggest a
common ancestry.
 Birds are more closely related to humans
since their embryos have a lot of
morphological similarities.

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 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

 Members of a phylum show similarities in structural

organs performing the same function hence have a
common ancestry.
Importance of comparative anatomy
 It gives evidence of a common ancestry of a group of
organisms
 Comparative anatomy is classified into two groups;-
 Convergent evolution
 Divergent evolution

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 CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

What is meant by convergent evolution?

 Convergent evolution is the process where different structures of
different embryonic origin evolve to perform same function.
How does convergent evolution occur?
 Structures from different embryonic origin become modified to
perform similar functions.
 As a result of competition for resources and in order to exploit
new habitats, the structures become modified to look similar and
to perform similar functions e.g. wings of birds and insect.

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 ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES

 These are structures with different embryonic origin but have

over a long period of time been modified to perform same
function.
 This is because the organisms having these structures exploit
the same kind of environment

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 Examples of analogous structures
 Wings of birds and insects
 Eyes of vertebrates and those of mollusca like octopus

(ii) Divergent evolution

 What is divergent evolution?
 Divergent evolution is a process whereby structures with a
common embryonic origin evolve to perform.

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 How does divergent evolution
occur?
 Structures with a common
embryonic origin evolve to perform
different functions to allow
organisms to occupy different
environment through adaptive
radiation. Divergent evolution forms
homologous structures. 14
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 Homologous structures
 These are structures with a common embryonic origin but
have over a long period of time evolved to perform different
functions
 This is because the organisms having these structures occupy
different kinds of environments.
 The evolutionary phenomena in which divergent forms
originating from a single ancestral form may each become
adapted to different ecological niche in a given habitat is
called adaptive radiation.

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What is adaptive radiation
This is the modification of structures of a
common embryonic origin over long period of
time to perform different functions.
Examples of homologous structures
 Forelimbs of all vertebrates
 Beaks of birds
 Feet of birds.
 Vestigial structures

What is meant by vestigial structures?

 These are structures that have ceased to be
functional over a long period of time hence
reduced in size.
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EXAMPLES OF VESTIGIAL
STRUCTURED IN HUMANS

 Appendix
 Tail
 Body hair
 Caecum
 Nictitating membrane 19
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Cell biology
 Organisms having same chemicals such as nucleic acids and
organelles such as mitochondria have a common ancestry
 All vertebrates have a common ancestry since they all contain
organelles like mitochondria and ribosome.
Comparative serology
 Organisms with similar blood proteins/similar antibody antigen
reactions have a common ancestry.

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 HOW DOES CONVERGENT
EVOLUTION OCCUR?

 Structures from different embryonic origin become

modified to perform similar functions.
 As a result of competition for resources and in order to
exploit new habitats, the structures become modified to
look similar and to perform similar functions e.g. wings
of birds and insect.

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 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
 The present continents drifted from one land mass
(Pangea) due to natural forces [after splitting of the land
mass current continents emerged] leading to isolation of
organisms. isolation occurred having different weather
patterns.
 Organisms of the same species were isolated by
physical barriers i.e mountains, oceans.
 Organisms in each continent evolved along different
lines hence emergence of new species
Explain continental drift as an evidence of evolution
 Current continent existed as one large land mass. The
present continents drifted leading to isolation of
organisms. Organisms in each continent evolved along
different lines hence emergence of new species.
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MECHANISMS OF ORGANIC
EVOLUTION
These are theories that explain how
evolution may have occurred.
There are two theories.
Lamarck's theory of environmental
influence on inherited
characteristics(use and disuse)
Darwin's theory of natural
selection(survival for the fittest)
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 Theory of environmental influence on
inherited characteristics
 This theory was proposed by a scientist called Jean
Baptist de Lamarck.
 It states that body parts that are used more
frequently develops further by increasing in size
while body parts that are not used frequently
weakens, reduces in size and eventually become
functionless.
 He states that acquired characteristics are inherited
by the offspring's
 E.g. the first giraffes were short necked. They fed on
grass and short shrub until they were depleted.
Vegetation only remained on tall trees which forced
them to stretch their necks to reach the vegetation.
The overstretching
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longer, a feature that was passed to the offspring's
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Ideas proposed by Lamarck in his theory
 Acquired characteristics are inherited
 Organs used are more prominent than those disused
Why is Lamarck's theory not acceptable?
 Phenotypic characteristics are not inherited since
they do not affect the genetic composition of an
organism.
Charles Darwin _ Theory of Natural selection
 This theory was proposed by scientist called Charles
Darwin.
What is natural selection?
 This is where nature selects those individuals which
are well adapted and allows them to survive while
those that are poorly adapted are rejected and die.
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Q. Explain how natural selection brings about
adaptations of species to its environment.
a) Variation among organisms
 Individuals of the same species show certain variations. These
variations are caused by genes and the variation can be
passed on from parent to offspring.
 Some variations become suited to the prevailing
environmental conditions (beneficial variations) while others
are not suited to the environmental (non beneficial) variations.

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 b. Reproductive potential/ over production of
offspring
 Due to selection pressure most organisms generally
produce more off springs than the environment can
support. However their numbers remain almost
constant.
c. Struggle for existence
 Due to large number of offspring, competition results
among individuals. Those individuals that have
competitive advantage survive.

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d. Survival for the fittest
 Well adapted individuals survive and reach the reproductive
age (sexual maturity) and handover the favorable
characteristic or gene to the offspring.
 Poorly adapted individuals fail to survive and fail to reach
reproductive age therefore fail to hand over the genes to the
offspring. Nature therefore selects some organisms to live and
others to die.
 NB: the favorable adaptation may accumulate in the species
producing a different species from original species.

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Describe the natural selection that brings about
adaptation of a
species to its environment
Individuals of the same species show certain variations.
These variations are caused by genes and are passed
down from parents to off springs through genetic
inheritances. Some of these variations become more
suited to the prevailing environmental conditions due to
selection pressure.
 Most organisms generally produce more off springs that
the environment can support causing struggle for
existence. During the struggle for existence, selection
pressure caused by competition for resources and
diseases occurs.
 Those individuals that posses characteristics that enable
them to have competitive advantages survive and reach
reproductive maturity to hand over their favorable
characteristics to their off springs. Those individuals that
are poorly adapted fail to reach reproductive maturity and
therefore do not pass their unfovaourable genes to their
off springs and die. This is called survival for the fittest.30
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Q. State the difference between Lamarckian and
Darwinian theories of evolution.
 Lamarckian says that characteristics acquired in the life of an
organism which are favorable in the adaptations to the
environment are inherited while Darwinian says the organisms
with variations which are suitable to the environment will
survive and the variations are passed on to the next
generation and organisms with unsuitable variation are
eliminated.

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NATURAL SELECTION IN ACTION
Industrial Melanism
 The peppered moth (Biston bitularia) is
found in many parts of England and
naturally rests on the tree trunks and
branches. It exists in two varieties;
 A normal/ wild type variety that is white
 Mutant variety that is very much darker
(melanic form)

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 Before industrial revolution, almost all peppered moth were the
wild type variety. However after the industrial revolution, the
number of melanic formed has been increasing steadily in the
same areas particularly around industrial cities.
 Before industrial revolution, the whole of England was covered
with green and fresh vegetation. The tree trunks and branches
were white. The wild moth (white) that rested on the trees
effectively camouflaged by the white background hence
protecting them from being preyed on by birds.

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CONT..

 After industrial revolution.

 Factories started dumping black soot and other
pollutants that darkened the trees in areas surrounding
the industrial cities.
 This proved advantageous for the melanic form that
camouflaged with the dark background and thus
protected from being preyed on by the birds while the
wild ones were easily seen and eaten by the birds

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Resistance to Insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and
antibiotics
 Houseflies are resistant to DDT.
 (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
 Recently houseflies have developed resistance to DDT which
used to kill them effectively.
 This is because a few mutant ones arise and become
resistance.
 After several generations, only resistant flies that are left
reproduce rapidly.

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Sickle cell traits in Humans
 The sickle cell trait occurs mainly in areas where malaria is
endemic.
 This is possible because the malaria parasite (Plasmodium
vivax) survive poorly in sickle shaped red blood cell thus
people with sickle cell traits have a high resistance to malaria
than normal individuals.
 The mutant individuals are resistance to malaria and grow to
maturity and reproduce resistance off springs.

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Role of Mutation in Evolution
 Mutations are spontaneous changes in the genetic
makeup of organisms.
 Over the course of evolutionary times, mutation serves a
crucial role of providing organisms with non-existent
protein hence characteristics.
 In this way mutation is a driving force behind genetic
diversity or variations.
 Variations that are beneficial cause the rise of new and
competitive species and are able to adopt to changes
such as climate, competition or emergence of new types
of diseases.
 No n beneficial mutation leads to formation of poorly
adapted individuals which become extinct.
 For evolution to occur, the forces of nature must
distribute the favorable traits to other members of a
population. 37
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Artificial Selection
 This is the process by which man selects those
plants and animals with desired characteristics
to be parents of the nest generation and culls
out those with poor characteristics.
Gene Pool
 Is a total of all genes in a population
Gene Frequency
 This is the frequency which specific gene
appears in a given population.
Speciation
 This is the development of new species of
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 ROLE OF MUTATIONS IN EVOLUTION

 Mutations bring about variations which can be inherited some

of the variations are favourable while others are unfavourable
to the organism.

 Favourable variations allow the organisms to compete in the

struggle for existence resulting in a more adapted organism to
its environment.

 Unfavourable variations are rejected and organsisms having

them die and are eliminated from the population.

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Explain why certain drugs become ineffective in
curing a disease after many years of use.
Disease – causing organisms mutate and become
resistant.
NATURAL SELECTION IN ACTION
 Existence of strains and varieties in some species
give evidence of evolution or formation of a new
species by natural selection. e.g
 Some disease – causing micro-organisms have
mutated and become resistant to drugs that used to
kill them.
 Mosquitoes that is able to produce an enzyme
against certain insecticides.
 The peppered moth which was white in colour
formed a dark moth that could camouflage on the
darkened walls and trees after industrial revolution
in Britain. 40
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Study questions
 Explain the following concepts as used in evolution
 Struggle go existence
 Survival for the fittest

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