Administrative & Business

Communication

CHAPTER ONE
1. COMMUNICATION: AN
OVERVIEW

1
1.1. Definition of
Business
Communication
 Business–Is the state of being busy
to produce wealth (i.e. engage in the
production of goods and services along
with distribution activities) to get
profit.
 Business Organization – Is any
organization that is engaged in
business activities with the goal of
securing profit.
2
 Communication – Although there
are hundreds of definitions of
communication, we can define it as
follows for our purpose in this course.
 The word communication is derived
from a Latin word “Communis”,
meaning “Common” because it
stands for a natural activity of all
human beings to convey opinions,
feelings, information, and ideas to
others through words, body language
or signs.
3
 According to Robert Anderson,
“Communication is interchange of
thoughts, opinions or information, by
speech, writing, or signs”.
 C.F Summer and W.H Newman
expressed communication as “……an
exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or
emotions by two or more persons”.
 Peter Little defines communication
as”….. the process by which
information is transmitted by
individuals and/or organizations so
that an understanding response
results”. 4
 Generally, communication is the
process of transmitting information
from the sender to the receiver with
an intention to create
understanding between them which
in turn leads to meet a given goal at
last.
 Business Communication
depending up on the above clues of
definitions can be shortly defined as
the process of transmitting
information for the business
purposes within the business
5
environment.
1.2. Nature of Business Communication
 Communication is the key integrating
element of business
organizations/companies because it brings
different individuals and
sections/departments of an organization
together so that they are effectively
collaborating with each other to achieve the
goal of the organization.
 Communication is also the lifeblood of any
organization irrespective of its type and size
and thus it always circulates in the
structures of organizations as does the
circulatory system of human blood within the
human blood vessels.
6
 From its nature, communication in
general from among the others is:
1.A Dynamic Process: Every time
people communicate, unexpected
responses and reactions occur
because each one brings a different
background and experiences to each
communication event.
2.Systematic and Continuous: It
goes on in a proper and orderly
way without stopping in some way or
the other. Even silence, body
language and facial expressions
contribute to carrying on the 7
3. A Two-Way Process:
Communication is complete only when
the sender gets a response from the
receiver.
4.Both an Interaction and
Transaction: Communication is an
interaction because it requires coming
together of the communicating parties
and it is considered to be a transaction
because it requires not only the
interaction of the communicating
parties but also the influence of the
communicating parties up on each other 8in
the process and becoming aware of each
5.It Can Be Intentional or
Unintentional: communication takes
place whether we plan to do it or
unconsciously/without being planned.
Intentional: Communication
conducted as being planned by the
communicator. Many times we are
able to say what we want to as we
have planned.
Unintentional: Communication
conducted without being planned most
often emotionally. Very often we
9
communicate what we had no
6. It is Common to All Living Things:
Communication is not only limited to human
beings as other living things also engage in
communication even though they do not use
words and do not make it analytically as human
beings does.
7.It Can Be Made Either Verbally or Non –
Verbally:
Verbal Communication: Refers to
communication conducted with words (either
written or spoken words)
Non-verbal Communication (Body
Language):Refers to communication conducted
without using words i.e. facial expressions,
silence, body movements, eye contacts, pictures,
etc. 10
1.3 Significance of Business
communication
Without effective communication no
business can survive. Communication
helps businesses to emerge and flourish.
Therefore, although there are multitudes of
significances communication plays in an
organization, the following can be
expressed as the most important ones.
A. Manages Complexity: Proper
communication between various sections
or departments like production, marketing
and personnel are necessary to avoid
misunderstandings that is the basis for 11
Manages Big Organizations: As a
result of diversification of businesses ,
keeping track is becoming difficult.
Therefore, meetings, conferences and
similar contacts must be made to travel on
the right way in big organizations
especially in Multinational Corporations
(MNCs).
Creates Better Understanding and
Cooperation: Mutual trust and confidence
will prevail to a great degree if there is
open communication so that there will be
better understandings and cooperation
between the communicating parties
12
through effective communication.
Increases Profitability: If business
communicates properly losses are reduced.
Wastage of resources including time is
avoided, while profits go up.
More cohesion: As interaction increases,
family feeling and emotional attachment to
an organization increases between the
members and/or clients of an organization.
Improves Image of the Company: If
employers & employee are taking care for
each other, the culture of an organization
becomes good and attractive. Employees
become happy and productive.
13
Increases Profitability: If business
communicates properly losses are reduced.
Wastage of resources including time is
avoided, while profits go up.
More cohesion: As interaction increases,
family feeling and emotional attachment to
an organization increases between the
members and/or clients of an organization.
Improves Image of the Company: If
employers & employee are taking care for
each other, the culture of an organization
becomes good and attractive. Employees
become happy and productive.
14
Improves Market Opportunity: As we
are more open to the environment we get
to know market fast and adjust our product
to it appropriately so that we will have
good market base.
Lessens Employee Turnover:
Employee turnover is a number of people
who keep leaving any organization. If
communication channels are open,
employees feel free to discuss all issues
that are pleasant and others that disturb
them. Then, they feel less inclined to leave
the company.
15
Easies the Collection and
Dissemination of Information: As
employee’s interaction and coordination
exists, there are less communication
barriers from individuals or organizations
leading to easier collection of information
from different individuals and sectors and
disseminate to same.
Creates Better Customer Interaction:
when companies invest in better
communication, there are higher chances
that they will have a satisfied customer
base and eventually higher profits.
16
17
 CHAPTER TWO

2.ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
AND THE COMMUNICATION
PROCESS
 Thetransmission of the sender’s ideas
to the receiver and the receiver’s
feedback to the sender constitute the
communication process (cycle).
 2.1.Essential Elements of
Communication Process
 essential elements of communication
process are;
 The Sender: the person who passes
on some information.
 The Receiver: is a person to whom
the information is to be passed on.
 The Medium: is something/a device
that is used to transmit the message
 Encoding: the process of putting the
idea into symbols that is made by the sender.
Decoding: interpretation of the message to
understandable information made by the
receiver.
Feedback: is the response of the receiver
made to the sender.
Noise: anything that arises in the
environment and distorts the free flow of
information between the communicating
parties.
Environment: the surrounding/setting in
which the communication process takes place
2.2. The Process of Communication
Since communication is a process, all the
first six elements of communication are to
be connected with arrows which shows the
direction of flow of information and thus,
the arrows should not be wrongly placed as it
misleads the communication process.
This is because of the fact that
communication is conducted to make
someone do something or act in certain way.
Communication is a six step process in general.
These are:
1. The sender has an idea
2. The idea becomes a message
3. The message is transmitted
 4. The receiver gets the message
 5. The receiver reacts/interprets and
implements the message
 6.The receiver sends feedback to the sender




 The sender (source) initiates the
communication process.
Diagrammatically, communication process
can be simply shown as follows;

Sender Medium Receiver

 Encoding Message Decoding Message Receiver

Feedback

23
 1.The Sender Has an Idea
As you view the world, your mind absorbs
your experiences in a unique and personal
way. For example, if you and a friend go out
for a cup of coffee, each of you will mentally
grasp different things. One of you may notice
the cozy environment as you enter the
cafeteria; and the other may notice the aroma
of the coffee.
2 The Idea Becomes a Message
In a process not completely understood, the
idea in your mind is transformed into words;
you decide such issues as the message's
length, organization,

tone, and style. You can express an idea in
an almost infinite number of ways, but
something makes you choose one approach
over another. For example, you may decide to
say, "The man was driving a car," rather than,
"The old man was driving a green 1990
Toyota with a loud music coming from his
stereo." Your choice of words depends on your
subject, your pur­pose, your audience, and
your personal style or mood.



 3 The Message is transmitted
 The third step in the communication process is
physical transmission of the message from
sender to receiver. The channel may be
nonverbal or verbal, written or spoken. Beyond
that, you can convey a message by phone,
computer, letter, memo, report, face-to-face
exchange, or other medium. The transmission
channel and the medium you choose depend on
the message you want to convey and on other
factors, such as the, location of your audience,
the need for speed, and the formality of the
situation.



 4 The Receiver Gets the Message
 For communication to occur, the receiver has to get
the message. If you send a letter, the recipient has
to read it before she or he can understand it. If
you're giving a speech, the people in the audience
have to be able to hear you, and they have to be
paying attention.
 But physical reception is only the first step. The
receiver also has to absorb the message mentally.
In other words, the message has to be understood
and stored in the receiver's mind. If all goes well,
the message is interpreted correctly: The receiver
assigns the same basic meaning to the words as
the sender intended and responds in the desired
way.


 5. The Receiver Reacts and Gives Feedback To
The Sender
 After getting the mes­sage, the receiver responds in
some way and signals that response to the sender.
The signal may take the form of a smile, a long
pause, a spoken comment, a written message, or
an action. Even a lack of response is, in a sense, a
form of response.
 Feedback is a key element in the communication
process because it enables the sender to evaluate
the effectiveness of the message. If your audience
doesn't under­stand what you mean, you can tell by
the response and refine the message.

 2.3. Lines of Communication
2.3.1.Communication in Organizational Environment
A. Internal Communication: Results when information is
transmitted inside the organization between individuals
within the organization itself. Example, communication
between employees of Global College that have held
different levels of the college.
B. External Communication: Is communication that a
given company makes with other companies/businesses
or individuals outside itself.
 In all business organization, there are formal and
informal communication channels (internally).
Example, communication between Global College on one
hand and other organizations/companies outside the
college like Ambo University, Ministry of Education,
customers, etc.



 2.3.2. Channels/Methods of
Communication
Communication channels/methods are
divided in to formal and informal that can be
described as follows.
Formal Communication: Refers to a
prescribed line of communication which all
members of an organization are obliged to
follow while communicating to each other. It
refers to the flow of information through the
structure of an organization without jumping
the levels they have to follow.
 …….. CONTIN………….
 There are three main lines (directions) of
formal communication. These are:
A. Vertical Communication: This
communication line is a communication that
flows up and down through the structures of
an organization in between superiors/bosses
and subordinates which can be further
divided in to upward and downward
communication as follows.
I, Vertically Downward Communication: This
type of vertical communication flows down the
organizational hierarchy from superiors who do
have the highest power and authority to
subordinates who do possess lower power and
authority.
…….. CONTIN………….
Vertically downward communication is used to
transmit commands, orders, directives or
instructions to subordinates to enable them to
work in accordance with the organizational policies,
objectives and reforms.
Example, the flow of information from Global
College Dean Academic Vice-Dean Heads of
Departments Instructors Students
II. Vertically Upward Communication: This line
of communication is a process whereby
managers/superiors or bosses receive information
from the levels below them (subordinates),
 …….. CONTIN………….
so that the subordinates act in tune with the
pulse of the organization.
It is very important for managers to know
what is actually going on in the
organization in making right decisions and
this type of vertical communication used to
inform/report what actually exists in an
organization.
Example, the flow of information from the Global
College Students Instructors Heads of
Departments Academic Vice-Dean Dean
 …….. CONTIN………….
B.Horizontal/Lateral Communication:
Refers to an exchange of information
between the same levels of business
institutions or between people holding the
same levels of an organization/company.
Example, communication held between
different heads of departments or
information exchange between instructors
that exist on same level of an organization
i.e. communication between Accounting
Department Head and Business
Management Department Head.
 …….. CONTIN………….
Horizontal communication coordinates
activities of different departments
(sections) of an organization, creating
harmony through the process. If there exists
harmony, there will be success and
maximum profit.
C. Diagonal Communication: This line of
communication is conducted among peoples
holding different levels of an organization,
but who are not related with line authority.
Therefore, diagonal communication is
important to undertake functional
authority.

 …….. CONTIN………….
Horizontal communication coordinates
activities of different departments
(sections) of an organization, creating
harmony through the process. If there exists
harmony, there will be success and
maximum profit.
C. Diagonal Communication: This line of
communication is conducted among peoples
holding different levels of an organization,
but who are not related with line authority.
Therefore, diagonal communication is
important to undertake functional
authority.

 …….. CONTIN………….
2, Informal Communication (Grapevine)
- is a component of internal formal system
of communication but, it crosses hierarchical
levels of an organization without following
the levels it has to follow. Informal
communication does not follow set lines,
directions and rules unlike formal
communication channel. This channel of
communication is speedy, but inaccurate.
 …….. CONTIN………….
2, Informal Communication (Grapevine)
- is a component of internal formal system
of communication but, it crosses hierarchical
levels of an organization without following
the levels it has to follow. Informal
communication does not follow set lines,
directions and rules unlike formal
communication channel. This channel of
communication is speedy, but inaccurate.
 2.4 Barriers to Effective Business
Communication
 Communication Barriers: Refers to anything
that obstructs/distorts (be obstacle to) the free
flow of information in the communication process
between the communicating parties (sender and
receiver).
 Communication barriers can arise while the
message is being developed, transmitted,
received or processed.
 Business communication is especially more prone
to misunderstanding because the message is
complex, conditions are difficult and
psychological or social differences often separate
the sender and the receiver.
 According to their nature, there are four
types of communication barriers that can
be discussed as follows.
 1. Physical Barriers - Physical barriers are
communication barriers that are arising from the
defects in the system itself i.e. complex and rigid
company bureaucracy, unhealthy working
environment, very long organizational hierarchy,
weak management, etc
 Physical barriers can arise from:
 Source/Sender: The person who sends the
message must be trust worthy. Hostile feelings
towards the sender create a predetermined thought,
which distorts the message in turn.
 Distance: If the sender is calling out the
receiver to tell him orally, distance becomes
an obstacle because of the large distance
between the communicating parties.
Telephones, faxes and other similar
media can reduce distance barriers.
 Time: Communication is only effective &
useful if it is conveyed at a right time & place.
 Physical Noise: Refers to any noise which
creates disturbance in the communication
environment.
 Defects in the Medium: This is communication
barrier that arises from defects in the communication
devices. Example, Problematic microphone.
2. Semantic Barriers - are communication
barriers that emerge from problems of language.
This type of barrier is not very easy to be removed
unlike physical barriers of communication.
 Semantic barrier includes:
Bad Expressions: Related to vague and unclear
messages, excess of words or inaccuracy,
unnecessary repetitions and irrelevant matters.
Inaccurate Translation: Negligence when
messages are to be rerouted or interpreted in the
same or different languages.
Semantics: Failure of a receiver to understand
the message as the sender intends. If the receiver
understands the sender’s message differently,
barrier arises.
 3. Psychological and Physiological
Barriers
Psychological Barrier: Barrier related to problems
of the mind of the communicating parties.
Physiological Barrier: Barriers related to problems
of the body of the communicating parties.
4. Other Barriers
These barriers comprise the following
communication barriers:
Lack of common knowledge: High sounding
words and phrases can create confusion, especially to
illiterate people.
Unsolicited communication: is communication sent when it
is not been asked for from the receiver.
Over communication: Repetition of communication more
than the required number of times. Too much quantum
(information load) of communication can confuse the receiver.

 Poor communication skills: Lack of skill
in writing, reading, listening and speaking.
 Poor expression: Limited word power,
improper organization of ideas, lack of
coherence, incorrectness, incompleteness, etc.
 Faulty transmission: Errors of omission
and commission. This is concerned with the
bias, feelings, and perceptions the
transmitter brings which the originator of
the message would not have intended. It
also happens when the originator expects
the transmitter to detail, illustrate, and
elucidate the idea, which the latter may fail
to do.
 Indifference and lack of interest: Is created
when there is no attentive listening to oral
communication, no careful reading of written
communication and there is no keen observance
of non–verbal communication. Therefore, the
intended message is either not received at all or
is incomplete and worse still, wrongly understood.
 Poor Retention: Inability to retain the
communication content/essence.
 Inattentive listening: Partial or marginal
listening to the speaker.
 Tendency to evaluate: Evaluating the
spoken/written content which will lead to loss of
part of the concentration.
 Conflicting interests and attitudes:
Clash in interest and attitude of
communicating parties.
 Prejudices: Interacting with a bias.
 Hierarchical differences: Differing status,
position, and self–experience.
 Refutations: Arguments to merely score
victory over the speaker diverts the
attention of the receiver.
 “I” Attitude: Domination of
communication/discussion by a single
speaker.
 Overcoming Communication Barriers
 The following coordinal rules are important
to overcome communication barriers along
with the respective methodology of the
rules.
 Rules Methodology
- Test thinking
1.Plan and clarify - Collate ideas/suggestions of
ideas others
- Support decision–making
- High–level motivation
2. Create a climate of trust and confidence - Win trust and
confidence
3. Time your message carefully - What, where, why, who, when
and how
4. Re – enforce words with action - Practice what you preach
 2.5 Interpersonal Communications
and Team Work
 Communication can be classified depending
up on different criteria’s. From among the
others we can classify it into four according
to the number of persons (receivers) to
whom the message is addressed.
A. Intrapersonal Communication: Talking to
oneself in one’s own mind. Example, soliloquies
in dramatic works.
B. Interpersonal Communication: The exchange of
messages between two persons.
E.g. A conversation, dialogue, an interview and a
letter.
 Here others may present as audience.
C. Group Communication: Among
small or large groups, like an
organization, club or classroom in
which all individuals retains their
individual identity.
D. Mass Communication: Occurs
when an identical message is sent
to large groups of people in which
each person becomes faceless
individual with almost no
opportunity of feedback.
E.g. Newspaper, radio, television, etc
 Working as Part of a Team
 Teamwork is a vital component
of successful business. Teamwork is
evident in almost all business functions
and it also helps to provide structure
within an organization.
 Team is ‘two or more people working
together.’
 “A limited number of people who have
shared objectives at work and who co-
operate, on a permanent or temporary
basis, to achieve those objectives.”
 Benefits of Team working
Below are some of many benefits :
Increased productivity
Better customer service standards
Improved internal communication
Being able to respond quickly
to opportunities and threats to the
organization
Increased employee motivation
Increased employees skills and flexibility
More effective internal communications
Rapid speed of the spread of ideas
 ……………Cont……
Today, most workers are part of a work
team.
What are the qualities of good team
members?
Good communication skill is the very
essentials qualities of good team members
You can foster effective Fostering
effective team communication in your
small group: team communication in your
small group by a mix of old-fashioned good
manners, good attention and open-
mindedness.
 Here are a few tips -
 Ask if everyone understands what the
team goals are.
 Ask input and feedback from all members.
 Listen carefully to what the other person is
saying.
 Don't interrupt until someone has finished
talking.
 Give feedback on what they've said.
 Speak slowly and clearly.
 Make your points in a clear, logical
manner.
 Include facts and details, and make sure
they are all accurate.
Watch your body language. It is more effective
than what you say. Don't make rash decisions or
issue any statements when you are angry. Give
yourself time to cool down.
If there are any misunderstandings, clear them up
in a calm manner.
If you don't understand any point, speak up and
ask questions. Get it clarified before you all move
on.
When considering the pros and cons of any issue,
consider the exact pros and cons, not opinion of the
majority.
If you have an opinion, express it as such, with the
reasons behind it, not as an iron-clad fact.
Be polite at all times.
Don't ramble on. Be concise. Stick to the matter at
hand.
Make sure every member of the group gets the
chance to speak.
Be open minded. If you've come to the meeting
with your mind already made up, there's little point
in having a discussion.
When responding to someone's question or
statement, repeat it to make sure you have heard
and understood correctly.
If you are taking a certain stand, take full
responsibility for it.
Do not disparage anyone for their views and don't
refute any point by taking personal shots at the
speaker. Address the issue.
 Be polite at all times.
 CHAPTER THREE
3. COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
3.1. Guidelines for Effective Business
Communication
The essential guidelines to effective
business communication can be easily
elaborated as follows:
1.Be clear about the purpose: Being clear
with what the communicator wants to
achieve through the process of
communication.
2.Understand the process of communication:
Understanding and following the various steps of
communication.
 3. Be clear about your target audience:
Identifying and making the communication
to reach the right person/group of person.
4. Develop good communication skills:
Possessing good skills of reading, writing,
listening, speaking, body language,
presentation, etc.
5. Be well – informed: Being informed of
the message we want to pass on before
initiating the communication process.
6. Plan your communication: Is planning the
message to be conveyed, the words to be chosen,
the methods to be adopted, the details to be given,
the actions to be sought, and the feed back to be
obtained.
7. Be positive in approach: Avoiding
biases, having positive approach and right
mental attitude.
8. Avoid extreme feelings: Avoiding anger,
depression and frustration while
communicating.
9. Be sincere, don’t manipulate: Being
honest, truthful and having integrity while
communicating.
10. Be consistent: Avoiding contradictory
information while we repeatedly engage in
communication process daily, weekly or
regularly.
11. Appreciate time factor: Timeliness and speed
to effectively transmit our message in a given period
of time.
12. Use proper modes and channels:
Choose the right methods and instruments
in accordance with the communication
condition.
13. Be cost conscious: The results
achieved by the communicator should justify
the costs incurred in the process.
14. Obtain feedback: Reassuring whether
the communication has reached the target
as envisaged.
 3.2. Characteristics of Effective Business
Communication
3.2.1. The Seven C’s of Communication
Effective business communication should meet the
following seven C’s of communication:
1. Credibility: The source/sender must be
acceptable to make the receiver take the message
appropriately.
2. Context: Consideration of the current situation,
proceeding interaction and time-span of the
communication process.
3. Content: Clear and simple to be understood
message should be sent to the receiver.
4. Clarity: Clarity of both diction/articulation and
pronouncement of ideas must be there.
5. Channels: The channels should be clear
and appropriate to transmit the message.
6. Consistency: Logical presentation of
ideas by avoiding contradictory ideas.
7. Capability of the Idea: The message
must be designed taking in to consideration
the capacity of the receiver.
3.2.2. The Four S’s of Communication
1. Shortness: Making the messages brief and clear
by avoiding verbosity.
2. Simplicity: The simpler the message, the easier
it is to comprehend.
3. Strength: Making the communication to be impressive to
be accepted by the receiver.
4. Sincerity: Making the source to be trustful or honest.
 3.3.Some Basic Truth about
Communication
 the facts/truths about communication are
the following four groups:
A/ There are some universal elements
in all human communication such as
environment, use of symbols (words,
body language and signs) and mental filters
(decoding and encoding), etc.
2/ Perfect communication is impossible: No
two person perceive the same meaning of a
message and all people tend to have “workable
understanding,” than the same understanding
of a message.
3/ Meaning is not out there: Meaning is
in the mind of human beings, not in the
symbols as symbols are arbitrary signs.
Symbols stand for things; they are not the
things themselves. Thus, the receivers have
to look for the meaning the sender must
have thought when he/she choose the word
to communicate.
4/ Personality communicates: Symbols of
communication symbolize the perceptions of
the communicator (the real person) (i.e. how
he/she think, feel, believe and respond to
reality).
 CHAPTER FOUR
 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN
ORGANIZATION
 Organizational Communication
 Organizational communication includes all
the three (intrapersonal, interpersonal and
public) level of communication. But the
distinguishing character is that the
communication is from an organization.
 The organization “acts like a person” with
regard to communication, even as a
corporation acts like a person in a legal
sense.
 The organization originates messages, owns
messages, and sends message to numerous
receivers, including internal and external
 An organization has internal and external
communication.
A. External Business Communication
 External communication in organizations can be
categorized as outward and inward
communication.
 Outward Communication
 All messages that go out of an organization to
suppliers, customers, banks, insurance
companies, government departments, mass
media and the general public are outward
communications. They may be in the form of
letters, telephone calls, reports, advertisements,
press handouts, speeches, visits, etc.
 This has an important effect on public
image and public relations of an
organization.
Inward Communication
 Whatever communications an organization
receives from outside are regarded as
inward communications. They have to be
registered, attached to, studied, acted
upon, replied to and stored.
 Purpose of External
Communication
 What are the purposes of External
Communication?

– Providing information.
– Giving instructions.
– Confirming arrangements.
– Improving customer service.
– Public relations.
B. Internal Business Communication
This is a communication within the
organization, between managers,
supervisors and workers.
At higher levels there are an increasing
number of chains of communication coming
together. It can be formal and informal.
The formal is divided in to vertical,
horizontal and diagonal communication.
i. Vertical Communication- Message that
move up and down the authority lines are
called vertical communications,
a/ Downward Communication
b/Upward Communication
ii. Horizontal/Lateral Communication-
those that move among persons of the same
level are called horizontal
communication.
iii. Diagonal Communication- Messages
that move diagonally between individuals at
different levels or position are called
diagonal communication.
Purpose of Internal
Communication
 What are the purposes of Internal
Communications?
– Giving information.
– Gathering information.
– Giving reassurance.
– Clarification of issues.
– Starting actions.
– Influencing actions.
Informal Communication/the
Grapevine
 Not all messages flow along the official
paths prescribed by the organizations
chain of command.
 Many messages flow along an informal
network commonly called the
‘grapevine.’
 Informal channels exist because of their
unique advantages and because of the
weakness inherent in formal channels of
communication.

71
 ……Cont…..
 Informal channels allow people to
handle predictable routine situations
well, because they tend to be filled with
oral rather than written messages, they
are effective means of transmitting
broad, general kind of information.
 But communication through formal
channels is a so laborious process that
involves long delays between the times
a worker first sends a message and the
time a reply is received, consequently,
formal channels are inefficient means:
72
 ……Cont…..
 For meeting unanticipated
communication needs
 For managing crisis
 For effectively communicating complex
or detailed information
 For sharing information
 All organizations have informal
networks, but the type of information
the grapevine carries depends on the
general condition of the organization.

73
 If an organization’s managers are fairly
open with employees and send all
necessary information through formal
channels, the grapevine usually carries
personal interest items. However when
the formal communication channels fail
to do the job, the grapevine begins to
carry information about the organization.
 In other words, “the grapevine busies
itself with official matters only when the
formal channels of common fail to
deliver, are not understood, or are not
accepted by the people for whom the
message are intended. 74
 Researchers have found that although some
entirely false rumors are spread by the
grapevine, information passed by this means
is 75 to 95 percent accurate. Informal
messages may be more accurate than formal
ones because status, power and rank
differences are temporarily set aside.
 Managers who listen carefully to the informal
communication network find it as a useful
source of information about employee
concerns and problems.
 Some managers “leak” new ideas or proposals
to the grapevine to test the workers’ response.
If an idea is greeted with hostility, they drop it
or revise it, if the idea is received positively
they introduce it in to official channels. 75
Characteristics of Informal
Communication
1. It is very fast and spontaneous—easy
and fast to disseminate information.
2. It is not entirely reliable—it might not
be accurate information and even sometimes
it might be impossible to know the source.
3. Its messages are difficult to or
counter once they get started.
4. It is accessible to every person in the
organization—once disseminated there is
no limitation.
5. It can be supportive or obstacle to
management effort.
76
 Types of Informal Communication
1. Single Strand Chain—one person
communicates with only one another.
Information is often distorted in this type of
communication.
2. Gossip Chain—one individual disseminates the
information to others. So information distortion can be
minimized.
3. Probability Chain—communication is random, so
information is transmitted in a random manner without
specific selection.
4. Cluster Chain—is similar to probability but their
major difference is in cluster chain there is a specific
selection of individuals when disseminating
information.

77
 Advantages of Informal Communication
It satisfies the need of employees to enjoy friendly
relation with their fellow employees
It helps workers to make some sense out of their
work environment, especially in interpreting orders
from supervisors
If subordinates are unable to understand their tasks
or if they can not contact their boss they may
informally communicated with friends
Informal communication is also way of expressing or releasing
negative energy, relief
It may be utilized to verify spread messages which the
management wishes to test or convey to its employees
Disadvantages of Informal Communication
Expands false rumors
Weakens formal communication channel
May result in conflict between management and subordinates

78
 CHAPTER SIX
6. MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
6.1.1. Overview of Communication Media
Communication can take place using
language or without using it (for instance,
body language, postures, sings, symbols
etc.) However, many verbal expressions
attest to the importance of non verbal
communication.
There is a saying which says “actions speak
louder than words” or “one picture is worth
a thousand words”. Whichever medium we
use, our goal is to communicate. Hence, we
can divide the media we use into two as
verbal and non-verbal.
79
 6.1.2. Verbal Communication
Every message is put in to a code. The
codes to which we direct most of our
attention are the spoken and written codes.
Actually, verbal signals carry only a small
part of the information that people exchange
in everyday interaction.
In face-to-face communication, no more
than 35 percent of the social meaning is
carried in verbal message. Generally, verbal
communication can be divided in to two oral
and written on the bases of whether the
words used are spoken or written words.

80
 a. Written Verbal Communication
Effective written communication is one of
the most important factors contributing to a
successful administration. Failure to
communicate efficiently and effectively in
writing can cost an organization a great deal
of time and money. Accordingly, some
researchers identify writing as the most
valued skill and 80 percent of all employees
need to improve in-house communication
training for their employees, encourage
workers to improve skills by referring the to
community, colleagues or other local
organizations, or conduct joint programs with
local schools.
81
 Management is dearly/greatly concerned
with employees’ ability to prepare written
documents.
 Despite the increased use of technology and
electronic means of communication, the
most frequent type of communication within
and between businesses is a written
document-whether it appears on a sheet of
paper or on a computer screen.
 Many executives still prefer communication through
written documents rather than other forms of
communication because the document can serve as
a contract, facts will be in writing, and the
executive will not have to rely on memory.

82
 The following are some examples of written
communication:
1. Memos: is an informal letter exchanged between
work units/sections or employees of the same
organization. It should be short, the message brief and
simple.
2. Notice: is a kind of written communication which is
used to inform people within an organization (e.g. a
billboard).
3. Circular: is detailed document giving information,
instructional orders on specific matter.
4. Report: is a document prepared by an individual or a
group who are entrusted with the task of collecting
information, fact or data on a given subject.
5. Minutes: are the written records of decisions taken
at a meeting. Others include telegram, telex, fax, etc.

83
 b. Oral Communication
When communicating orally, language choices play a
vital role. Usually it is often suggested to use clear and
precise language.
Command to the language requires years of practice
and study.
Since it is impossible to lay down strict rules that
govern the choice of language for all occasions and for
all circumstances, the discussion here is limited to three
important aspects of language choice: clarity,
energy and vividness.
a. Clarity: Avoiding jargon, difficult and slang
words/language.
b. Energeticness: As language is active and direct our
expressions must be forceful.
c. Vividness: Finding out a new way of saying old
things.

84
 Differences between Written and Oral Communication
Written Communication Oral Communication
Is slower in preparation,

conveyance and feedback -Immediate feedback

Possibility of keeping -The message can be
records for future use easily distorted
Expensive than -Cheaper than
oral communication written communication
More formal - Less formal
Longer sentences - Short sentences
Focus on content -More conversation
Greater linguistic emphasis -Less detailed
Permanent recording - More personal pronouns
Possibility of - Focus on interpersonal relations
Less spontaneous - More spontaneous

85
 6.1.3. Non-Verbal Communication
Albert Meharabian, a contemporary writer on non-verbal
communication, has determined from his research that as
much as 93% communication is non-verbal.
Non-verbal communication is information we
communicate without using words. Thus, the way a
person uses voice, body movement (e.g. eye contact,
pictures, facial expressions, gestures, and posture),
clothing and body appearance, space, touch and time
are an essential part of every message that he/she sends.
Types of Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication can be of different types from
which the following are the most widely known:
a. Paralanguage: Is the way we say something. It
includes characteristics like rate (speed of speaking

86
 ), pitch (highness, lowness of tone), volume
(loudness) and quality (pleasant or unpleasant
sound).
 Facial Expression: Such as eye contact (very
important to control the degree of attention) and
other body movement and gesture.
 Posture: A way in which a person holds
himself indicates something about his feelings
and thoughts. Example: sitting straight exhibit
tenseness or anxiety; leaning back is a sign of
relaxation and leaning forwarded might indicate
excitement.
 Clothing and Personal Appearance: You never get
promoted to a position if you do not look like you fit in. You
must wear appropriate clothing for different situation.
 Distance and Personal Space: We must keep distance
according to our relationships.
87
 Physical Environment: Includes:
b. Colour: It has impact on our emotions.
c. Lighting: Different light magnitudes have
implications
d. Room Size: Different room size for different
locations
e. Odor: Bad smell could distract the meeting
Furniture arrangement, noise, window position,
etc.
f. Time: The time some one arrives at can tell the
respect we have towards the person.
h. Tactile Communication: Is communication by
touch. It is the easiest and most elementary mode
of communication among human organism.
It is the first form of communication
experienced by infant, and it is known that the
early tactile experiences are crucial in letter88
development of symbolic recognition and
 For adults, tactile communication is a potential
form of non-verbal communication. Tactile
communication has at least four distinguishing
characteristics:
 It is ordinarily limited to two persons
 It is immediate and transitory, operating only
as long as contact is maintained
 It takes place on the level of signals (direct
stimulation through the sense of touch rather
than symbiotic mediation, and
 It is reciprocal in the sense that who or what a
person slouches also touches him/her.
i. Silence: Can be used to communicate. It is
usual that what is not said is as important as
or more important than what is said. Silence
can have message such as disagreement,
snoring, etc. 89
Verbal and Non-Verbal Difference
Verbal and non-verbal communications differ in
five ways that can be elaborated as follows:
1.Continuity: Verbal communication begins and
ends with words, whereas non-verbal
communication is continuous.
2.Medium: Verbal communication requires a
single medium i.e. words, whereas non- verbal
communication uses several media.
3.Control: Whereas verbal communication is
under our control because we can choose our
words, non-verbal communication is under our
control only part of time.
4.Structure: Verbal communication is
structured. It follows formal rules grammar.

90
 Because so much of non- verbal communication occurs
unconsciously, however, there is
no planned sequence.
5.Acquisition: Many of the formal rules for verbal
communications are taught in a structure,
formal environment such as a school. In contrast, much
of non- verbal
 communication is not formal taught; we pick it up
taught imitating others.
 6.1..4. Factors to Be Considered for the Choice of
Appropriate Media
 In our communication, we must use appropriate media and
channel. The following factors should be considered in
media selection.
a.The content of the message; example, is it secret?
b.Who the receiver will be; example, boss, subordinate,
deaf, blind, etc.

91
c. The receivers’ location and environment, etc.
d. Communicating cost
6.2 Oral Communication
Oral Communication: Refers to verbal
communication that is conducted by spoken
words.
It includes any form of communication which we
hear and speak like lectures, speeches,
instructions, songs, etc. It provides opportunities of
fast feedback. Oral communication helps people
to build morale and establish group identity.
6.2.1 Types of Oral Communication
Oral communication can be classified into the
following groups:

92
1.Face-to-Face Communication: Refers to
communication between individuals who are found
closer to each other in a way that enables them to look
at each others faces while communicating.
2. Telephone Talk: Is speaking to each other
through telephone lines or networks made between
individuals who are not found nearer to other.
3. Public Speech: Has a face-to-face setting, but the
distance between the sender and receiver is large. It
is a one-to-many communication held in
auditoriums or open-air space.
4. Presentation: Is a formal well-prepared talk
given by an individual to a group of people. The
audience of presentation is mostly knowledgeable
and interested.
5. Interview: Refers to a formal meeting between an
interviewer/s and interviewee/ candidate.
6.Meeting: Is a gathering of different concerned93
 persons to discuss an issue and arrive upon
common decisions.
Factors that Matter in Oral Communication
 There are two important factors that matter in
oral communication:
1. Projection: Is speaking as loud as how the
occasions and listeners demand. This ensures
that you are heard even at the end of the room.
2. Articulation: Is speaking all parts of a word
carefully. Incorrect articulation occurs from:
 Adding parts to a word, i.e. addition
 Leaving off parts from a word, i.e. deletion, or
 Slurring words together, e.g.
businesscommunication

94
 6.2.2 Business Presentations
 Presentation is a formal well prepared talk
given by an individual to a group of
people/audience who are mostly
knowledgeable and interested.
 While making presentation is very important to:
 Have positive attitude towards the situation and
the audience
 Install enthusiasm
 Realize that you are an expert in the area
 Presentation skill involves:
 A verbal content of 7 %
 A voice inflections, modulations and articulation of 38 %
 A body sport of 55 %
 For successful handling of an audience a presentation
requires excelling and exercising control over the
following three domains: 95
1. The material to be presented
2. The self; building confidence and
relaxation
3. The audience
To enhance one’s presentation skill it is
absolutely imperative to secure the following
things of the presentation:
Why is the presentation required
Who will prepare
Where is it to be prepared
When is it prepared
What is to be presented
How to present
96
Steps to Successful Presentation
There are seven steps to successful
presentation. These are:
1.Decide up on the objective
2. Identify manner of presentation
3.Select mode of presentation
4.Prepare script/draft
5.Prepare visual aids, handouts and feedback
forms
6.Rehearse/practice how to present
7.conduct the presentation

97
 Format of Presentation
Presentation should be done according to the
following format and sequential arrangement.
Stage Purpose
Ice-breaker ---------- ---Warming up
Open----------------- Introduction to the topic
Discuss need for a new idea ---Solicit willingness and
ooperation
The idea ------------------ Thrust area
Accruing results/benefits------Importance,significance of idea
Summary/conclusion---------Improve recall
measures

98
 6.2.3. Business Interviews
Interview: is a formal meeting in which a person or
a group of peoples question, consult or evaluate the
other person. Here, a person or group of persons who
pose/s a series of questions is known as an
interviewer, while the person who replies to the
question is called an interviewee/candidate.
Both the interviewer and interviewee do have their
own specific objectives. The interviewer can
understand and know the views, knowledge, skills,
ideas and attitudes of the person being interviewed.
On his/her own part, the interviewee can understand
more about the organization/company, the
interviewer, the position/issue interviewed for, etc.
The conversation bounces back and forth from the
interviewer to the interviewee.
99
 Classification of Interviews
Interview can be classified on the basis of two criterions.
Depending on the basis of orientation of information,
there are five types of interview. These are:
1. Employment Interview: Is related to job seeking or
selection of appropriate candidate for specific
position/post in an organization. It is the most common
and well-understood type of interview. This type of
interview enables the employer to know about the
applicant’s abilities, knowledge, skills, and the
employee gets the chance of knowing more about the position
and organization. It is the basis for important decisions for both
parties.
2. Exit Interview: Given to a person who has resigned from an
organization to get feedback.
3.Information Interview: Seeks facts that are important to basic
understanding of events.

100
4. Persuasive Interview: Made to convince the interviewee by
discussing the interviewee’s needs and how the interviewer can
fulfill those needs.
5. Stress Interview: Designed to put the candidate in the
stressful (difficult) situation in order to test the reactions of
the candidate.
This type of interview test qualities like courage, tact, temper
and self command which are needed when confrontations
happen.
2. On the basis of feelings, there are four types of interview:
1. Counseling Interview: Occurs when a senior talk to a
subordinate about personal problems that are interfering with
work performance.
2. Disciplinary Interview: Made to correct the behavior
of an employee who has ignored the rules and
regulations of an organization. This type of interview is
used to make employee see the reason, and realize his/her faults.

101
3. Conflict Resolution Interview: Is an interview in which
conflicting groups are both encouraged to adjust their
perceptions and attitudes to create a more productive climate.
4. Assessment Interview: Focuses on career development of
an employee, shortcomings, areas which need improvements,
training needs, opportunities for promotion, etc.
6.2.4. Business Meetings
Meeting: Is gathering together of all concerned people to
pass decision on specific issue and that cannot be achieved
through person-to-person interaction.
It is most commonly used form of discussion in a professional
organization and important to the smooth conduct of
businesses.
The person who chairs the meeting (chairman) acts as a
leader of a group and regulates the meeting. Meeting success
depends not on what happened at the meeting, but what
happens when the members have returned to their jobs.

102
 Procedure of Holding Meeting
The chairman generally convenes a meeting of the
members.
In other cases, an authorized official who has an
agenda calls a meeting.
The following points should bear in mind to
conduct a meeting.
The announcement of a meeting must be made
preferably in writing
The notice should be sent to all members
The notice can also state the agenda
The notice must indicate the meeting date, time,
and specific venue/hall

103
 Notice of Meeting
Notice of a meeting is a letter written to announce/tell the meeting
to the members who has to present. Notice of a meeting should be
sent in advance, especially if it is a formal meeting.
The notice must be in the required format and has to include the
following points:
Name of the body who is going to meet
Date, day, and time of meeting
Place of meeting, with specific hall
Agenda of a meeting

Agenda of Meeting
Agenda is a list of items that are to be discussed in a meeting.
It is an outline of the contents for a future meeting.
It is usually sent along with the notice and basically prepares the
members for the meeting.
All
formal meeting require written, formally typed agenda. All informal
meetings also have an agenda, but may not be typed and pre-circulated.
 Agenda of a meeting is important to:
 Make the meeting professional
 Smoothen the conduct of meeting as there is set order
 Enable members to come prepared for the meeting
 Ensure that matter relevant is only discussed
 Makes all points to be discussed on time
 Facilitates preparation of minutes
Minute of Meeting
 Minute is a written document of the decision of a meeting. It is an
official record of the proceedings of a meeting. It usually shows, what
was formally resolved or decided.
 Minute of a meeting include:
 Name of the body met
 Nature of the meeting
 Day, date, time, and place of meeting
 Name of chairperson
 Names of person’s in attendance_ “invited officials who are not members”
 Leave or absence for those who are not present
 CHAPTER SEVEN
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
7.1. Business Letters
Business letter refers to communication by letters that are
conducted for business purposes/activities.
 It includes all letters that is used in the conduct of business. Each
letter acts as a silent ambassador of the writer and his / her
organization.
Because each letter represents the thoughts and feelings of the
writer and what he / she has to say on the behalf of the enterprise.
It has to be clear, explicit and unambiguous.
They are written documents that stay for a long period of time for
future reference.
7.1.1. Basic Parts of Business Letters
There are seven basic parts of business letters which are
standardized to almost all business organizations.
 1. The Heading or Letterhead
Letterhead is written on the top part of any business letter
containing the name of the sending organization (company
or person), along with complete mailing address and telephone.
It should not occupy more that one – fifth of the paper and has
to mention a complete address.
2. Dateline
Every official document must be dated. Dateline enables quick
reference in the future and makes filing easier. It is placed one –
line below the lowest line of letterhead.
Dateline can be written as:
• 14 July 2018
• 14-07-2018
• 07-14-2018( American style )
• July 14, 2018
 3. Inside Address
This part identifies the recipient of the letter.
It is typed one or two lines below the dateline, based on
how long the letter is.
Inside address contains the name and address of the firm
or individual to whom the letter is written.
It should start from the left margin of the letter.

4. Salutation
Salutation is the greeting part of a business letter.
It beings at the left margin, two line spaces below the
inside address.
Itis followed by comma if the letter is not in a full – block style.
When the letter is addressed to an organization, the salutation is
plural. Example; Dear Sirs, or Sirs,
On the other hand, if it is addressed to a particular official; it is
singular. Example; Dear Sir, or Sir,
 Dear Madam, or Madam, is used if the official is lady.
5. Body of the Letter
 This is part of a letter that contains the message or the
information to be communicated.
 It is the most important part in which the writer and the
reader must be critical as it is a part that creates an
impression about the intelligence of the writer.
 The body of the letter contains the following parts in its
own:
 The opening paragraph
 The main paragraph and
 The closing paragraph.
 The body of the letter should display a positive attitude and friendly
approach.
• The reader’s attention should get attracted in the opening
paragraph.
  The main paragraph must contain all relevant details.
 Besides, the closing section should be firm and bring the
letter to a logical end.
6. Complementary Close
Complementary close is a polite way of ending a letter.
It should reflect the relationship between the writer and the receiver.
It is placed below body of the letter.
The first word of complementary close begins with a capital letter.
Example - Yours faith fully, Truly yours, Regards, Sincerely
yours, Yours,
7. Signature
Signature signifies that the writer is giving assent to whatever is
mentioned in the letter.
It is placed below complementary close.
After leaving three blank line of signature following complementary
close, the sender‘s name is typed.
7.1.2.Basic Layouts of Business Letters
Layout: Refers to the way in which all the parts of a business
letter are arranged on a practical paper.
There are certain patterns(layouts) businesses follow while
writing business letters among which the following three
layouts of business letters are very important.
1. Full Block Form (Style)
This is a new and modern style of letter writing. There is
no indentation at all in this type of layout.
Every thing begins at the left margins of the letter.
The address has no punctuation mark (comma and full
stop).
The appearance is left heavy and right light
Double line space is used between the parts
Example; Sample Letters.docx
 2. Indented Form (Style)
 Indented layout form is very old style, used when
most letters were handwritten.
 In this type of layout the inside address is indented.
Every paragraph begins 3 to 5 spaces from the left
margin.
The letter looks untidy and uneven from both margins
comma is used in front of salutation and
complementary closing.
Date, complementary close and the title (name) of the
organization (person) are placed on the right margin
Example; Sample Letters.docx
3. Hanging – Indented Form ( Style )
The inside address in hanging – indented form is in block
form.
The date and complementary close are situated on the
right margin.
Each paragraph starts from the left margin.
The further lines (other lines) of each paragraph are
indented 3 to 5 spaces from the left margin.
These forms of letters are used for sales, brochures, etc
where the appearance should attract the reader
immediately.
The main points and striking statements can be
highlighted.
Example; Sample Letters.docx
 7.1.3 Types of Business Letters
 There are four different types of business letters.
1. Official Letters
 Official letters are written to government or
private bodies.
 They are written under the official letterhead
of the organization.
 These types of business letters are letters on the
behalf of the enterprise or the organization.
 Official letters are not addressed by name;
rather they are only made by the designation
of the addressee.
2. Demi-Official Letters
 This type of letter can also be written to
government or private bodies.
 In Demi-official letters, the addressee is
mentioned by name.
 It is written when the message/information is to be
confidential/secret/not to be shared with others or
when the particular attention of the addressee is
required.
3. Form Letters
Form letters are business letters that are written with a
particular form with blank spaces that are to be filled
subjectively.
These types of letters are used for routine/repetitive
communications of letters.
Therefore, these letters are very important to reduce costs and
wastage of time.
4. Memorandums/Memos
Memorandums are informal letters used for internal communication within
the structures of same organization.
They are never sent to external organizations as they are informal by
nature.
7.2. Business Reports Writing
7.2. 1. Overview of Business Report Writing
Report: is ‘a communication from some one who has some
information to someone who needs that information’ and
business report is a report used for business purposes in
general terms.
Business report writing is a logical presentation of facts and
information in written words conducted for organizational
purpose of businesses.
Report writing in business is needed to evaluate progress
and plan future action.
Decision – makers need clear, concise, accurate and
readable reports to make sound decisions.
Reports are delivered in written words.
 The goal of report is to make information clear, convenient
and accessible as much as possible.
 7.2.2 Gathering Information for Report Writing
 Once we are clear about the purpose of writing a report,
to whom it is meant, facts examined, etc it is a time to
start the work (gather information).
 Steps in gathering information for report writing:

a.Investigating the Sources of Information

 It is done right at the beginning.
 The major sources of information are; company files,
personal observations, interviews, letter, questionnaires and
library research.
b. Taking Notes
 Taking notes is writing down some notes during
investigation.
 It is continuing with data collection and processing what
we have written.
 Taking notes helps to find a pattern of what is
happening.
 C) Analyzing the Data
All the data collected is required to be
analyzed.
Some information needs to be rejected and
more might be needed fresh.
The writer should never be in a hurry here,
as this is an important stage.
D) Making an Outline
Once the writer has planned the report in his
mind, he / she should prepare an outline.
 At this stage, the problem is stated, facts
are recorded, they are analyzed and logical
conclusion is reached.
 E) Writing the Report
Writing the report requires a lot of planning and
conclusion.
It should be correct logically, grammatically and in
clarity.
This is the stage up on which the writer must take
pains. Because, it will be read by the person who it
and it needs will form an impression about the report
writer.
7.2.3. Types of Reports
(A) On the basis of formality, there are two types of
reports.
1. Informal Reports
Informal report is usually the form of a person – to
person communication. It does not follow any
format. This type of report informally conveys the
required information to the concerned body.
 2. Formal Report
Prepared in a prescribed form and is presented in
the proper way to prescribed authority.
Formal report can be statutory (which are
necessary by law) or non-statutory (which are not
compulsory by law, but help the management in
policy formulation).
(B) On the basis of frequency of issue, we have
two types of reports.
1. Periodic (Routine) Reports
Periodic reports are reports which are presented at
regular, routine intervals in the normal course of
business. It can be prepared annually, monthly
weekly or daily.
These types of reports are mere statements of
facts and do not go with recommendations or opinion.
 2. Special Reports
These types of reports are related and generated
for a single situation (occasion).
They deal with non- recurrent issues.
Special reports provide suggestions to the
management to take appropriate decisions.
(C) On the basis of function, there are also two
types of reports.
1. Informative Report
Informative report presents facts and
information related to an issue (situation) .
It informs something to the management.

2. Interpretive Report
These types of report analyzes facts, draws
conclusions and makes recommendations to
solve problems.
 (D) On the basis of the nature of the subject, there are four
kinds of reports:
1.Problem–Determining Report: Is a report
that is intended to identify a specific problem
whereby the problem itself is not known
accurately.
2. Fact–Finding Report: Refers to a report
that intends to find facts regarding an identified
problem through problem determining report or
any other ways.
3. Performance Report: Is a report that
evaluates performance and presents the results
of the evaluation/appraisal.
4. Technical Report: Refers to a report that
intends to provide a technical solution to a given
problem.
 7.2.4.Parts of a Long Report
A report has several parts, which enable the writer
to present all the information in a simple easy –to–
read form.
All reports do not need all the part, but longer
reports, which are formal, need to have all the
parts.
The major parts of a long report are shortly
discussed as following in this section.
1. Title
Title should always be there in every report. It
indicates the subject, the period and the location of
the study.
2. Terms of Reference
Terms of reference gives the details about the
assignment, the purpose and the scope of the study.
 3. Procedure
Mentions the methods used to collect
information for report writing. The method of data
collection depends on the nature of the study.
4. Findings
Findings are the main part where the findings are
presented.
At this part, the collected facts and figures are
organized into a presentable and readable form.
Suitable headings and sub- headings are to be
included here.
Findings may end with a summary of the most
important findings that emerge.
5. Use of Illustrations
This part makes the report to become much more
readable, clear and effective; it can be presented in
the form of charts, diagrams, graphs, maps,
6. Recommendations
Recommendations are proposals for action
suggested by the writer. Mostly included if the
assignment has asked for. It is usually given by
senior people.
7. Signature, Place and Date
All the people who are in the report writing
committee must sing the report.
Signature is situated on the right, while the place
and the date are placed on the left.
The date written on the report is the date–of–
submission of the report.
8. Table of Contents
Table of contents is included only if the report is
long. It can be attached after the title page and
used to refer important topics for quick references.
 9. Appendix
Appendix of report is a supplementary material
given at the end of the report.
It is something which has been used or referred to in
the report.
10. Acknowledgement
It is a list of names of people or organizations
that have helped in the report writing.
It appears before the first chapter.
In addition to the above parts, optional items which
we may not see in all reports are the following. These
items are called addenda and include:
List of references
Bibliography
Contents page
Title page
List of illustrations
Appendices and
Glossary
END OF THE COURSE
THANK YOU
FOR YOUR
ATTENTION!!

GLOBAL 2019!