Geography of Ethiopia and

the Horn
(GeES 1011)
UNIT 5 – The Climate of Ethiopia and The Horn
5.1. Introduction
 Ethiopia is characterized by diverse climatic conditions due to:
 wide variety of altitudinal ranges;

 Ethiopia is also characterized by temporal and spatial variations in

weather and climate elements due to:
 closeness of the country to the equator and the Indian Ocean.

 In general, the climate of Ethiopia is mainly controlled

by:
 the complex topography of the country.
 the seasonal migration of Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ)
 associated atmospheric circulations.
 Cont’d
Weather and Climate
Weather is the instantaneous or immediate or
current state of the atmosphere.
 i.e. the atmospheric condition as it exists now and here, (the
feeling on daily base- hotness or coldness, rainy or cloudiness,
sunniness, windiness
The weather that impacts the surface of the Earth and
those that exist on the surface takes place in the
troposphere (the lower layer of the atmosphere).
Climate: is the state of the atmosphere over long time
periods, decades and more.
 Is the composite of daily weather conditions recorded for
long periods of time;
 It takes into account the extremes or variations that may
occur beyond the average conditions.
 Cont’d
5.2. Elements and Controls of Weather and
Climate
 Both weather and climate are expressed using
elements of weather and climate:
 temperature, precipitation, atmospheric pressure,
humidity, wind speed and direction and cloudiness.
 Almost all (most) weather conditions may be traced
to the effect of the Sun on the Earth.
 Most changes in weather also involve large scale
horizontal motion of air which is named wind.
 The climate of a region is determined by the
radiation, its distribution and temporal
variations.
 Cont’d
5.2.1. Controls of Weather and Climate
 It is known that weather and climate have spatial
variation (between places ) and temporal variation
(between seasons).
Q. What determine the variations in weather and climate
between places and seasons?
 The climate of any particular location on earth is
determined by a combination of many interacting factors.
 These factors are known as controls of weather and
climate:
Latitude/angle of the Sun,
Altitude and mountain barriers/topography/,
Land and water distribution (the presence of nearby water),
Prevailing winds and air pressure,
Ocean currents
 Cont’d
a. Latitude
 Refers to the distance of a location from the equator.
 When you move from the equator towards the poles:
 Temperature become colder
 Less solar insolation/radiation during the year;
 There is more hours of direct sun shine on the
equator than anywhere else.
 Because of latitudinal location Ethiopia
experiences:
 High average temperatures
 High daily ranges and small annual ranges of temperature;
 No significant variation in length of day and night between
summer and winter.
 Cont’d
b. Inclination of the Earth’s Axis
 The earth’s axis makes an angle of :
 23 ½ degrees from the perpendicular to the ecliptic plane.
 66 ½ degrees with the plane of its orbit around the sun.

The inclination of the earth’s axis

determines the location of:

the Tropic of Cancer,

the Tropic of Capricorn,
the Arctic Circle and
the Antarctic Circle with respect to
the sun.
 Cont’d
 The revolution of the earth, the inclination of the earth’s axis, the
constant position (parallelism) of the axis causes:
 change in the directness of the sun's rays;
 differences in length of daylight and night and seasons.
 Cont’d
 During revolution the earth takes different position on its
orbit.
 Depending on the Earth’s orbital position:
Some times either the Northern Hemisphere (NH) or
Southern Hemisphere (SH) is tipped/tilted/towards
the sun.
 Hence, the tilted hemisphere receive more solar
radiation and the opposite hemisphere receive less
solar radiation.
 These times are known as Solstices.

Some other time the earth reaches a point at which the

poles are at equal distance from the sun.
 Hence, both hemispheres receive equal sunlight.
 These times are known as Equinoxes.
 Cont’d
Equinoxes and Solstices
An equinox is the instant of time when the overhead/vertical/
sun’s rays strike the plane of the Earth's equator.
Day and night are of equal length in all parts of the world.
Equinox appears twice a year: Vernal and Autumn equinox

i. The Vernal (Spring) Equinox:

March 21st is the beginning of vernal equinox in the NH.
is the day when the point of verticality of sun’s rays crosses the
equator northwards.
On March 21st:
i. The noontime (overhead) sun is shining exactly above the equator.
ii. Hence, lengths of Day & night are equal throughout the world.
i.Vernal equinox marks the beginning of spring season in NH.
 Cont’d
ii. The Autumn Equinox:
 September 23rd is the beginning of autumn equinox
in the NH.
 is the day when the point of verticality of sun’s rays
crosses the equator southwards.
 On September 23rd:
 The noon time (overhead sun) is shining exactly above
the equator.
 So, lengths of Day & night are equal throughout the
world.
 Autumn equinox marks the beginning of Autumn
season in NH.
 Cont’d
Solstice is an event when the overhead/vertical/ sun
appears to cross northern or southern points
 It results in unequal length of days and nights in the
hemispheres.
During this event the two hemispheres have either the
most or least sunlight of the year.
 The two Solstice are: Summer and Winter solstice
i. The Summer Solstice:
 On June 21st, the NH has maximum tilt towards the sun;
while the SH has maximum far away from the sun .
 The noontime sun is shining exactly above the Tropic of
cancer.
 It is the longest day of the year in the NH and the
shortest day of the year in the SH.
 It is the astronomical first day of summer in NH.
 Cont’d
ii. The Winter Solstice:
 On December 22nd, the SH has maximum tilt towards
the sun; while the NH maximum far away from the sun.
 The noontime sun is shining exactly above the Tropic
of Capricorn.
 It is the longest day of the year in the SH and the
shortest day of the year in the NH.
 It is the astronomical first day of Winter in NH.
Cont’d
c. Altitude
 It refers to the height of location above the sea
level.
 Under normal conditions there is a general
decrease in temperature with increasing
altitude/elevation.
 The average rate of temperature change per unit
of altitudinal change is known as lapse rate.
 The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per 1 kilometer
(1000 meters) rise in altitude.
 Generally, the lapse rate is limited to the lower
layer of the atmosphere named as
troposphere.
 Cont’d
Types of lapse rate
There are three types of lapse rates:
a) Dry adiabatic lapse rate
There is temperature change in rising or subsiding air mass.
The change in temperature in the rising or subsiding air mass
is not the result of additions or withdrawals of heat from
outside sources;
It is due to internal processes of expansion and contraction;
which is known as adiabatic temperature change/lapse
rate.
An adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the temperature
of an air parcel changes in response to the expansion or
contraction process associated with a change in altitude.
Cont’d
 The major cause of adiabatic temperature changes
is vertical displacements of air.
 When air rises, it expands because there is less
weight of air upon it.
 The earth’s atmosphere extends to a very great
height above the earth’s surface.
 However, half of the mass of the earth’s
atmosphere lies below 5.5 Km.
 Thus, if a mass of dry air at sea level rises to an
altitude of about 18,000ft (5486.22 meters), the
pressure upon it is reduced by nearly half and its
volume is doubled.
Cont’d
 If the air in the parcel is unsaturated, it does not
produce condensation.
 Thus, the rate of adiabatic cooling or warming remains
constant.
 i.e. if the rising air does not produce condensation ,
then the energy consumed by expansion will cause a
fall in the temperature of the air mass at the
constant dry adiabatic lapse rate.
 The rate of heating or cooling is about 10°C for every
1000 meters of change in elevation.
 This rate is called dry adiabatic lapse rate; and it
applies only to unsaturated air.
 Cont’d
b) Wet adiabatic lapse rate
 As a parcel of air rises and cools, it finally
becomes saturated (i.e reaches the level of maximum water vapor
content).
 With further decrease in temperature the water vapor
condenses, forming cloud, and so releasing heat.
 Condensation is the process by which a water vapor
loses heat and changes into a thin liquid water droplets.
 In such process heat is released, which is known as
latent heat of condensation.
 Hence, if air is saturated the heat is released in the
process of ascent, due condensation.
 This lower the rate of temperature change of rising air.
 So, after saturation, the rising air follows the moist
(wet) adiabatic lapse rate
Cont’d
 If a saturated air were to sink, it would compress
and warm at the moist (wet) adiabatic rate.
 This is because when a saturated air sinks,
 heat is consumed in the process of descent, due to
evaporation.
 Evaporation is the process by which a liquid water
droplet consumes heat and changes into a water
vapor.
 In such process heat is consumed, which is known as
latent heat of vaporization.
 This lower the rate of temperature change of
descending air.
 So, after saturation, the descending air follows the
moist adiabatic lapse rate
Cont’d
Hence, the rate of temperature change of rising
or sinking saturated air (wet adiabatic rate) is
less than the unsaturated air (dry adiabatic
rate).
Prolonged cooling of air regularly produces
condensation, thereby releasing latent heat.

 So, rising and saturated or precipitating air cools

at a lower rate than unsaturated air does.
 This process is called wet adiabatic temperature
change. The rate of cooling of wet air is
approximately 5°C per 1000 meters ascend.
 Cont’d
c) Environmental or Atmospheric lapse rate
 This refers to the actual observed change of temperature
with altitude at a rate of 6.5°C per 1000 meters.
 There is a decrease in temperature upward from the
earth's surface- temperature inversion.
 This normally prevails throughout the lower atmosphere
(troposphere).
Q. Why temperature decreases upward in the troposphere?
 Because most of the atmospheric heat is received directly
from the earth's surface and only indirectly from the sun.
 In fact lower layer is warmer, not only because it is closest
to the direct source of heat, but:
 Because of its high density;
 Because it contains more water vapor and dust it absorbs
earth’s radiation more efficiently than the thinner, drier,
cleaner air aloft
Cont’d
5.3. Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution of Temperature
and Rainfall in Ethiopia
5.3.1. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature
In Ethiopia the spatial distribution of temperature is
primarily influenced by latitude and altitude.
Due to the latitudinal location, being near to the equator,
every part of the country experiences overhead sun twice
a year.
However, the tropical climatic conditions do not prevail
throughout the country.
Tropical climatic conditions are confined to the
peripheral lowland areas.
Towards the interior (central part) of the country the
topography is dominated by highlands.
Therefore, temperature decreases towards the interior.
Cont’d
 Mean annual temperature varies from over 30°C in the
tropical lowlands to less than 10°C at very high altitudes.
 Lowlands of north-western, western and south-eastern
Ethiopia experiences mean annual temperatures of more
than 30°C.
 The highest mean annual temperature in the country is
recorded in the Afar Depression.

 Lowest mean annual temperatures are recorded around

highland (mountainous) areas, the Bale Mountains are
among these.
 This implies that altitude is the major factor that determine
the spatial distribution and variation of temperature in
Ethiopia.
Cont’d
 There are traditional expressions /local terms/
denoting temperature zones in Ethiopia.
Table: Temperature versus Altitude
Cont’d
 Latitude and cloud cover are the major controls that
determine the temporal distribution of temperature in
Ethiopian.
In Ethiopia and in all places in the tropics:
 the air is frost free; and

 there is small changes in angles of solar rays

 These make the solar radiation to be intense.

However, some parts of the country (i.e highland areas)

enjoy a temperate climate, which is the effect of altitude.
In the temperate areas the daily range of temperature is
small and the annual range is high.
Whereas, in the tropics, the daily range of temperature is
higher and the annual range is small.
 Cont’d
 As in all places in the tropics Ethiopia’s daily
temperatures are more extreme than its annual
temperatures.
 This is because temperature is high during the daytime and
is considerably reduced at night resulting maximum
difference in the daily range.
 Daily maximum temperature has spatial variation:
 It varies from > 37°C in the lowlands of northeast and
southeast to about 10°C to 15°C in the northwestern and
southwestern highlands.
 The variation in the amount of solar radiation received
daily (i.e. the day to day variation) is small throughout the
year.
 In both highlands and lowlands of Ethiopia there is:
 Minimal variation in the mean monthly temperature;
 Small annual range of temperature
Cont’d
 In Ethiopia and the Horn it is not easy to observe
distinct variation in temperature between seasons.
 This is because the sun is always high in the tropics.

 However, there is some seasonal variations of temperature:

 From March to June there are highest temperature
recordings;
 From November to February low temperatures are
recorded.
 Overall, temperature slightly increases during summer.
 The southern part of Ethiopia receives highest temperature
in autumn and spring following the relative shift of the sun;
 The northern part of the country, receives higher
temperature in summer season.
 The temperature variation in mountainous areas is also
determined by the direction of rain bearing winds.
 Leeward versus windward side
Cont’d
5.3.2. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
The rainfall system in Ethiopia is also characterized by
spatial and temporal variability.
It is related to the position of Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ), pressure cells, and Trade Winds.
Following the position of the overhead sun, the ITCZ(low-
pressure zone)shifts north and south of the equator.
The inter-annual oscillation of the position of the ITCS
causes variation in the flow patterns of winds over
Ethiopia & the horn.
 Cont’d
 In July, the ITCZ shift towards north of the equator
(Tropic of Cancer). At this time:
 The Northeast Trade Winds retreat giving the space for
equatorial westerlies;
 Equatorial westerlies from the south and southwest invade
most parts of Ethiopia bringing moist winds, and hence rainfall.
 In January, the ITCZ shift towards south of the
equator (Tropic of Capricorn). At this time
 Northeast Trade Winds carrying non-moisture-laden dominates
the region (Ethiopia and the Horn);
 Afar and parts of Eritrean coastal areas experience rainfall in this
period.
 In March and September, the ITCZ shifts towards
equator. At these times:
 the central highlands, southeastern highlands and lowlands
receives rainfall as the south easterlies bring moist winds (from
Indian ocean).
 Cont’d
Seasonal or Temporal Variabilities of Rainfall
In Ethiopia the amount and distribution of rainfall is highly
variable across regions/places/ and seasons.
These variations are the result of:
 The macro-scale pressure systems and
 The monsoon winds which are related to the change in pressure
systems
The temporal variabilities of rainfall are characterized by:
i. Summer (June, July, August)
Majority of Ethiopian regions, except lowlands in Afar and
Southeast, receive rainfall during summer season (mid–June to mid-
September).
At this time Ethiopia and the Horn are under the influence of the
Equatorial Westerlies (Guinea monsoon) and Easterlies.
Thus, Guinea monsoon and the south easterly winds bring
summer rainfall for Ethiopia.
Cont’d
ii. Autumn (September, October and November)
In autumn the ITCZ is around the equator.
During this season, the south easterlies from Indian Ocean
brings rainfall to the lowlands in southeastern part of
Ethiopia.
iii. Winter (December, January and February)
In winter the ITCZ is far south of the equator.
During this season, north easterly winds originating from
the landmass of Asia dominantly prevail Ethiopian landmass.
The northeasterly winds carry very little moisture while
crossing the Red Sea and supplies rain only to the Afar
lowlands and the Red Sea coastal areas.
iv. Spring (March, April and May)
The South easterlies from the Indian Ocean provide rain to
the highlands of Somalia, and to the central and southeastern
lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia.
Cont’d

Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia

Four rainfall regions can be identified in Ethiopia:

i. Summer rainfall region

Almost all parts of the country, except the
northeastern and southeastern lowlands;
Experience most of the rain during summer
(kiremt), while some places also receive spring (Belg)
rain.
Divided in to wet and dry summer rainfall regions.
The wet rainfall regions are areas having rainfall of >
1,000 mm/year. High altitudes and the windward side
experience such amount of rainfall.
Cont’d
ii. All year-round rainfall region
It has many rainy days than any part of the country.
It is a rainfall region in the southwestern part of the
country.
The average rainfall in the region varies from 1,400 - over
2,200 mm/year.
The duration and amount of rainfall decreases as we move
from southwest to north and eastwards.
Receive highest rainfall in summer months whereas less
amount during the winter months.
iii. Winter rainfall region
This rainfall region receives rain from the northeasterly
winds.
During the winter season, the Red sea escarpments and
some parts of the Afar region receive their main rain.
Cont’d
iv. Autumn and Spring rainfall regions
These regions receive rain following the influence of
southeasterly winds.
The south easterlies bring rainfall from the Indian
Ocean.
South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain
during autumn and spring seasons.
About 60 percent of the rain is in autumn and 40
percent is in spring.
The average rainfall varies from less than 500 -1,000 mm.
 Cont’d
5.4. Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia possesses diverse agro- climatic zones that
have traditionally been defined in terms of temperature
into five major climatic zones: Wurch, Dega, Woina
Dega, Bereha and Kolla.
a)The Wurch Zone (cold to moist)
 area having altitude > 3,200 m.a.s.l. and mean annual
temperature of less than 10°C.
 include mountain systems such as Ras Dashen, Guna, Megezez in North
Shoa, Batu, Choke, Abune Yoseph etc.
a)Dega Zone (cool to humid)
 area having relatively higher temperature and lower
altitude compared to the wurch Zones.
 long inhabited and has dense human settlement due to:
 reliable rainfall for agriculture

Cont’d
c) Weyna Dega Zone (cool sub humid)
 area having warmer temperature and moderate rainfall.
 the second largest zone covering > 26% of Ethiopia’s
landmass.
 includes most of the agricultural land in Ethiopia
because the temperature and rainfall is highly suitable for
most of crops grown
 it has two growing seasons.

d) Kolla Zone (warm semiarid)

 is boundary between the Woina Dega and the Bereha.
 largest zone covering hot lowlands of south, southeast,
west and northeastern parts of Ethiopia.
 rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
 it is erratic but in the wet western lowlands of Gambella
mean annual rainfall can be as high as 1500 mm.
Cont’d
e) Bereha Zone (Hot arid)
 is largely confined to hot arid climate of the desert
lowland areas with altitude of < 500 meters.
 usually characterized by strong wind, high
temperature, low relative humidity, and little cloud
cover.
 Djibouti, majority of Somalia, and coastal areas of
Eritrea are categorized under Kolla and Bereha zones.
 Cont’d
5.5. Climate Change/ Global Warming: Causes, Consequences and
Response Mechanisms
Climate change is any change in the state of the climate that
persist over extended period of time, typically decades or
more, due to either natural variability or human activities.
It can be identified by changes in the mean values and/or
the variability of its properties (eg. Temperature, Rainfall).
5.5.1. Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia
Ethiopia’s climate experiences:
 spatial and temporal variations
 extreme conditions such as drought, flood etc.
Between 1900 and 2010, in Ethiopia 12 extreme drought events
were recorded most of these resulted in famines.
The recent (2015- 2016) sever drought caused successive harvest failures
and widespread livestock deaths.
 Cont’d
 Over the last decades, Ethiopia has experienced climatic
changes explained in variability of climate elements. (eg.
T° & RF)
Trends in Temperature Variability
 In the past 40-50 years mean annual temperature has
shown increment by 0.2°C - 0.28°C per decade.
 The rise has temporal and spatial variation.
 For example, between 1960 and 2006 a rise in mean
temperature of about 1.3°C has been observed.
 Drier areas in northeast and southeast part of the country
revealed higher rise in temperature.
 Temperature variability is higher in July-September.
 The number of “hot days” and “hot nights” has shown
increment.
 Ethiopia’s minimum temperature has increased with
0.37°C to 0.4°C per decade.
 Cont’d
Trends in Rainfall Variability
Mean annual precipitation of Ethiopia remained fairly
stable over the last 50 years.
However, rainfall variability is increasing (and
predictability is decreasing) in many parts of the country.
In some regions, total average rainfall is showing decline.
For example, between 1975 and 2010 rainfall have shown decline by
15-20% in parts of southern, south- western and south-eastern
regions.
This highly impacts/affects/ crop production.
The changes in temperature and rainfall increase the
frequency and severity of extreme events.
 floods have been common occurrences in many parts of the
country;
 droughts have been aggravated by global warming;
 desertification is expanding in the lowlands of the country
 Cont’d
5.5.1. Causes of Climate Change
Could be natural factors or anthropogenic (man-induced)
A. Natural Causes
i.Earth orbital changes:
 While the earth is revolving changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to
small but climatically important changes in the strength of the
seasons
 More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters.
ii.Energy Budget:
i. Small changes in the Sun’s energy output over an extended period
can lead to climate changes.
ii. The sun has been very gradually increasing its amount of
radiation.
iii. Now the Sun’s radiation is 20% to 30% more intense than it was.
iii.Volcanic eruption: releases large volumes of Sulphur dioxide,
Co2, water vapor, dust, and ash into the atmosphere.
This can increase planetary reflectivity causing atmospheric
 Cont’d
B. Anthropogenic Causes
The warming of the earth in the past 50 years is mainly
driven by human activities. This is revealed by:
 increased in atmospheric CO2 levels from 280 parts per million
(PPM) to 400 PPM in the past 150 years.
 Human induced greenhouse gases have caused much of the
observed increase in Earth's temperatures over the past 50
years.
 Greenhouse gases include: CO2, methane, water vapor, nitrous
oxide and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 Methane is more active greenhouse gas than CO2

Concentrations of these gases in the air have increased due

to:
 decomposition of wastes in landfills,
 ruminant digestion and manure management,
 agriculture and clearing of land for agriculture,
 industrial activities and synthetic compounds of manufacturing,
Cont’d
5.5.3. Consequences of Climate Change
Climate change has many impacts in many parts of the
world.
The impact is higher in low income countries since
they have limited capacity to cope with the changes.
i. Impacts on human health: include
 cause increased heat related mortality and morbidity,
 greater frequency of infectious disease epidemics
following floods and storms,
 health effects following population displacement to
escape extreme weather events
ii. Impact on Agriculture:
iii. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns have significant
effects on agricultural production.
iv. Climate change increases physiological stress and affect
fodder availability and quality.
Cont’d
iii. Impacts on water resources:
 Climate Change is leading to melting of snow and
glaciers which in turn result in:
 increases rise in sea level,
 distorts wind flow pattern,
 decreases water table
 increase drought and floods,
 More frequent and longer droughts reduce run-off
amount into rivers, streams and lakes.
iii. Impact on Ecosystem and biodiversity:
 Climate Change affects adaptation of species,
population, and community.
 Because of global warming certain species could
be seriously affected or some may even disappear.
Cont’d
5.5.4. Climate Response Mechanisms
Nowadays the world is facing complex challenges due to
climate change.
Hence, there should be response mechanisms to
reduce its impacts.
The major response mechanisms to climate change
are mitigation, adaptation and resilience.
a)Mitigation and its Strategies
Actions which are taken to reduce and control the
emissions and concentration of greenhouse gasses
in the atmosphere either by:
 reducing sources of these gases or
 enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store these
gases (eg. Forest, ocean, soil).
 Cont’d
 Mitigation measures that can be taken to avoid the
increase of pollutant emissions include:
 Practice Energy efficiency;
 Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar
 Efficient means of transport implementation: electric public
transport, bicycle, shared cars etc.

b)Adaptation and its Strategies

 Actions which are taken to adapting to life in a changing
climate.
 Its goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful
effects of climate change (eg. extreme weather events or food
insecurity.
 It involves adjusting to actual or expected future
climate.
 It also involves making the most of any potential beneficial
opportunities associated with climate change
(eg. Longer growing seasons, increased yields in some regions).
Cont’d
 Some of the major adaptation strategies include:

 building flood defenses,

 plan for heat waves and higher temperatures,
 installing water-permeable pavements to better deal
with floods and storm water,
 improve water storage and use in cities and towns,
 landscape restoration and reforestation,
 flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for
natural catastrophes,
 preventive and precautionary measures (early
warning, evacuation plans, health issues, etc.)