MODULE 4

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

 This module presents the fundamentals of
2
using focus groups in applied qualitative
research. It includes:

 Overview of Focus Groups

 Ethical Guidelines
 How to Be an Effective Moderator
 How to Be an Effective Note-taker
 Steps in Moderating a Focus Group
 Steps in Note-taking for a Focus Group
 What is a focus group?
3

 A focus group is a qualitative data collection method in

which one or two researchers and several participants
meet as a group to discuss a given research topic.
 These sessions are usually tape- recorded, and
sometimes videotaped.
 The principal advantage of focus groups is that they
yield a large amount of information over a relatively
short period of time.
 They are also effective for accessing a broad range of
views on a specific topic, as opposed to achieving group
consensus.
 Strengths of focus groups versus in-depth interviews
4 Appropriate for Strength of method
Focus • Identifying group • Elicits information on a range
groups norms of norms and opinions in a
• Eliciting opinions short time
about group norms • Group dynamic stimulates
• Discovering variety conversation, reactions
within a population

Interviews • Eliciting individual • Elicits in-depth responses,

experiences, with nuances and
opinions, feelings contradictions
• Addressing sensitive • Gets at interpretive
topics perspective, i.e., the
connections and relationships
a person sees between
particular events,
 What can we learn from focus
5
groups?
 Focus groups are especially effective for capturing
information about social norms and the variety of
opinions or views within a population.
 The richness of focus group data emerges from the
group dynamic and from the diversity of the group.
 Participants influence each other through their
presence and their reactions to what other people say.
Because not every- one will have the same views and
experiences – because of differences in age, gender,
education, access to resources, and other factors –
many different viewpoints will likely be expressed by
participants.
 Ethical Guidelines

How do I explain the purpose of the focus group?

 It is important not to talk about the topic in any detail, to

avoid influencing what people say during the discussion.
 It is important that you be truthful and straightforward
about the objectives of the study.
 Do not create false expectations in order to obtain a
participant’s cooperation.
 Participants may ask you questions that you prefer to
answer at the end of the focus group
7 What should I say about confidentiality?
 Avoid using participants’ names
during the focus group (name
substitution)
 Emphasize both at the beginning and
end of each session that participants
should respect each other’s privacy
and anonymity
 8 How should informed consent be handled for a focus
group?

 Before beginning the focus group, you must obtain informed consent in
accordance with the procedures of the specific study protocol.
 Typically, you will obtain informed consent individually with each participant
before the person joins the group.
 Ensure that participants understand that they are not for any reason obligated
to participate in the focus group, nor are they required to answer any
questions they do not wish to answer. Informed consent for focus groups is
often oral and may be tape- recorded in full or in part, but some studies may
require written informed consent.
 It is also essential to provide participants with information on how the focus
group data will be used and who will have access to it.
 Who conducts the focus group?
9

 Focus groups work best when conducted by

two researchers, often called facilitators.
 These facilitators have both individual and
shared responsibilities.
 One person acts as the moderator of the
discussion and the other is the note-taker.
Both facilitators should be prepared to perform
either role, in case it becomes necessary to
switch roles during the focus group.
10 What does the moderator do?

 Moderators are responsible for leading

the focus group discussion, posing all
questions specified in the focus group
question guide, keeping the discussion
on track, and encouraging all
participants to contribute.
11 What does the note-taker do?

 Note-takers are responsible for

taking detailed notes of the
discussion, even though focus group
sessions are typically tape-recorded.
 Note-takers may also be responsible
for tasks related to recording
12 How many people are necessary for a focus group?

 The qualitative work plan for each site

will specify the approximate number of
participants to be recruited for each
focus group, as well as the number of
focus groups required for the project. A
typical number of participants is eight
to ten people, with a maximum of 12.
13
Where should I conduct the focus group?

 Whenever possible, focus groups

should be conducted in a location
affording a maximum degree of
privacy to participants. This decision
should be made by someone who is
familiar with the local area and
cultural context.
14 How should I present myself to focus group participants?

 Dress is an important part of making a

good impression on participants, as are
initial remarks, manner of speaking, and
body language.
 Cell phones should be turned off and
placed out of view so as not to imply that
the participants’ testimony is of secondary
importance.
15 How long should the focus group last?

 Focus group sessions usually last from one to

two hours and should include time for
participants to take a break.
 If possible, they should be scheduled no closer
than 90 minutes apart to allow time for each
staff member to take a break, participate in a
debriefing session, and prepare for the next
focus group.
16 How long should the focus group last?

 As you begin the focus group, consider how

much time you are likely to have and set
realistic goals for covering all of the questions
in the focus group guide.
 Keep track of which questions have been
addressed, and be ready to redirect the
conversation if necessary in order to cover all
questions. It is a good idea to record the start
and end times of each focus group.
17 What if nonparticipants want to observe the focus
group?

 It is preferable that no outside observers (that is,

someone who is neither a participant nor a
facilitator) be present during the focus group.
Their presence might inhibit participants from
speaking freely. Therefore, even stakeholders
should be strongly discouraged from attending
the discussion.
18 What if a participant does not stay for the entire
discussion?

 Participation in focus groups is always voluntary.

Participants who do not want to remain for the
duration of the discussion, for any reason, should
be reminded of the confidentiality agreement,
thanked for their participation, and reimbursed, if
applicable.
 In such a situation, the note-taker can take the
participant aside to handle departure, and the
moderator can take notes until the note-taker
returns.
19 What if the focus group is
interrupted?
 If a focus group discussion is interrupted by someone
outside the group, take any steps necessary to protect
the confidentiality of participants.
 At the least, this will involve stopping the discussion
temporarily and explaining the private nature of the
discussion to the person(s) responsible for the
interruption.
 Again, the note-taker can take the interrupter outside
or aside to explain the need for privacy.
20 How do I document the focus group?

 Documenting the focus group consists of making

tape recordings and writing notes. The note- taker
is responsible for taking detailed notes of the
discussion and often for operating the recording
equipment.
 The moderator takes brief notes. Both facilitators
should take the opportunity to expand their notes
during the debriefing session after the focus
group, and/or generate a set of debriefing notes.
21 What if the recording equipment fails?

 Facilitators should practice operating the

recording equipment before conducting any focus
groups and test it just before each session.
 If the equipment fails, the note-taker’s detailed
notes, supplemented by the moderator’s brief
notes, will serve as backup documentation.
 It is important to check for equipment failure
immediately after the focus group and to expand
notes as soon as possible if a failure has occurred.
22 How do I prepare for a focus group?

 An effective focus group facilitator knows the research material

well and is practiced in the method.
 It is important to understand the purpose behind each question
and how it fits within the overall research aims.
 Recognize when participants have adequately addressed the
intent of the question, when a response or responses contain
information that applies to a separate question or to a scripted
follow-up question, and when or which probes are needed to elicit
additional information from individuals or from the group as a
whole.
 You might also conduct practice focus groups with people in the
community who are not participating in the study.
23 How do I encourage positive group dynamics?

 A crucial skill for moderating a productive

focus group is the ability to build rapport with
and among participants from the start of the
discussion. This involves quickly establishing
a positive, relaxed, and mutually respectful
group dynamic. If participants do not feel
comfortable expressing personal opinions
and experiences during the discussion, the
focus group will not achieve its objectives.
24 How should I handle participants’ different personalities
and emotional states?

 Some groups will have a gregarious tone to them, and

others a serious or quiet tone. Whatever the case,
your goal should be to keep the discussion moving
along, with as many people participating as possible.
 If someone presents an obstacle to meeting this goal,
such as by dominating the discussion, expressing a
negative attitude, or having an emotional outburst,
you need to know how to reduce that person’s impact
on the group and to steer the discussion in a more
productive direction.
25 If a participant is ...

 Talkative. If a participant holds the floor for too long,

you may need to intervene.
 Prone to interrupt. One strategy is to remind the
group that one of the ground rules of the focus group is
to refrain from interrupting other people. You might
also thank the individual and suggest returning to his
or her point after the first speaker’s contribution has
been completed.
26 If a participant is ...

 Aggressive. You might first remind participants of the

ground rule that no one is permitted to insult or
personally attack anyone else. You could also try to
decrease the level of aggression by calmly asking the
individual in question to explain the reasoning behind
the stated negative opinion and then involving the rest
of the group in the discussion.
 Tired. If more than one participant begins to appear
tired or irritable, it may be time to take a break.
Encourage people to get up and move around, use the
restroom, and have refreshments
27 If a participant is ...

 Shy. Some participants will be hesitant to join an ongoing

debate or discussion. You could offer them a safer opportunity to
speak by pausing the discussion and asking whether anyone
else has something to contribute. You could also pose questions
directly to individuals who have been especially quiet, thank
them afterward for sharing their experience, and encourage
them with body language, such as smiling.
 Angry. If a participant becomes angry, try to soften the level of
emotion by acknowledging that the issues at hand are indeed
sensitive or controversial. If you consider it preferable to address
the person’s anger, steer the conversation toward the idea that
it is the issue that is upsetting rather than another participant.
28 If a participant is ...

 Crying. If a participant begins to cry, it is up to the

moderator to gauge whether it is better to address the
issue directly or not call attention to the person. If you
decide to discuss it, you might ask the person to identify
the source of his or her distress. When the source is an
issue related to the content of the discussion, ask the
group if other people feel emotional as well. If the issue
has to do with group dynamics, react accordingly,
reminding people of the ground rule of mutual respect, and
so on. In some situations, the note-taker might take the
crying participant aside to resolve the situation.
29 What does it mean to ask one question at a time?

 Asking questions one at a time, which gives you the

opportunity to provide clarification or to rephrase
each question.
 If participants do not understand the question or
seem to have misinterpreted it, rephrase it. If the
question still does not stimulate a productive
discussion, let it go and move on to the next
question. You might also try reintroducing the
question later if there is an appropriate time.
30 How do I verify unclear responses?

 Use the mirroring technique, where

you reflect the participant’s answer
back to him or her in question form.
31 How do I ask open-ended questions?

 Open-ended questions set no limits on

the range or length of responses,
instead giving participants the
opportunity to explain their position,
feelings, or experiences. An example is,
“What were your experiences using the
family planning services at xxxx clinic?”
32 What are follow-up questions and how do I use them?

 Follow-up questions (or sub-

questions) are intended to
ensure that participants provide
the complete set of information
each main question was
designed to elicit.
33 What are probes and how do I use
them?
 Probes are neutral questions, phrases, sounds, and
even gestures moderators can use in focus groups
to encourage participants to elaborate upon their
answers and explain why or how.
 Probing therefore requires the moderator to listen
carefully to participants and to engage actively
with what they say.
 Probe for more detail about what the participant
thinks, feels, and experiences in relationship to the
research topic.
34 Direct questions:
 “What do you mean when you say . . .?”
 “Why do you think . . .?”
 “How did this happen?”
 “How did you feel about . . .?”
 “What happened then?”
 “Can you tell me more?”
 “Can you please elaborate?”
 “I’m not sure I understand X. . . . Would you explain that to me?”
 “How did you handle X?”
 “How did X affect you?”
 “Can you give me an example of X?”
35 What are indirect probes and how do I use them?

 Indirect probes are verbal and physical expressions that indicate that the
moderator is listening attentively.
 Indirect probes:
 Neutral verbal expressions such as “uh huh,” “interesting,” and “I see”
 Verbal expressions of empathy, such as,“I can see why you say that
was difficult for you”
 Mirroring technique, or repeating what the participant said, such
as,“So you were 19 when you had your first child . . .”
 Culturally appropriate body language or gestures, such as nodding in
acknowledgment
36 Facilitating group discussion
 Open with a general comment and wait for a response.
 Invite a wide range of commentary by asking participants
for experiences, thoughts, and definitions.
 Use silence to your advantage.
 Limit your own participation once the discussion begins.

Encouraging maximum participation

37 How do I take field notes?

 Focus group moderators write brief notes

on the focus guide or in a notebook as
they lead the discussion.
 Moderators necessarily take less detailed
notes than focus group note-takers
because their primary responsibility is to
engage in and lead the discussion with
participants.
38 Expanding your notes involves the following:

 Scheduling time to expand your notes, preferably

within
24 hours from the focus group session.

 Expanding your shorthand into sentences so that

anyone can read and understand your notes.
 Identifying questions for follow-up.
 Reviewing your expanded notes and adding any
final comments.
 Steps in Moderating a Focus Group
39

Preparing for the Focus Group

 1 Study the focus group guide.
 2 Study the informed consent document.
 3 Practice both moderating and taking notes.
 4 Decide with the note-taker how you will handle not using
participants’ real names.
 5 Review debriefing notes from previous focus groups.
 6 Prepare a checklist of everything you need to bring to the
focus group.
 7 Confirm the reservation of the focus group location and
arrange for refreshments.
 Steps in Moderating a Focus Group
40

Day of the Focus Group

 8 Before leaving for the focus group, use a checklist to verify that you
have all equipment.
 9 Arrive early at the focus group site to set up the room and materials.
 10 Label all data documentation materials.
 11 Greet and check in participants.
 12 Obtain informed consent from each participant before they join the
group (unless the note-taker has this responsibility).
 13 Assign identifying pseudonyms or numbers to participants and provide
materials for making name cards (unless the note-taker has this
responsibility).
 14 Make a seating chart to identify speakers in your notes.
 15 Introduce yourself and explain your role.
 Steps in Moderating a Focus Group
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Day of the Focus Group

 16 Lay the ground rules.
 17 Lead the discussion according to the focus group guide.
 18 Take brief notes in the focus group guide during the discussion.
 19 End the question-asking phase of the discussion.
 20 Give the note-taker the opportunity to ask questions.
 21 Give the participants the opportunity to ask questions.
 22 Obtain oral confirmation of the group’s informed consent while the tape
recorder is still on (if specified in the protocol).
 23 After the focus group, clarify any factual misconceptions expressed by
participants.
 24 Reimburse the participants in accordance with study procedures.
 25 Wrap up all conversations and clear the room.
 Steps in Moderating a Focus Group
42

Immediately after the Focus Group

 26 Take a break.
 27 Participate in the debriefing session led by
the note-taker.
 28 Using a checklist, gather all forms and
notes.
 29 Expand your notes, within 24 hours if
possible.
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THANK YOU