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Periodic Table

The document provides an overview of the periodic table, focusing on electronic configurations, periodic trends, and the properties of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. It explains key concepts such as ionization energy, electron affinity, and atomic radius, detailing how these properties change across periods and down groups. Additionally, it highlights the physical and chemical characteristics of different element categories, emphasizing their behavior in reactions and their applications in various industries.

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Sehebah Rahman
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
32 views22 pages

Periodic Table

The document provides an overview of the periodic table, focusing on electronic configurations, periodic trends, and the properties of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. It explains key concepts such as ionization energy, electron affinity, and atomic radius, detailing how these properties change across periods and down groups. Additionally, it highlights the physical and chemical characteristics of different element categories, emphasizing their behavior in reactions and their applications in various industries.

Uploaded by

Sehebah Rahman
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Periodic Table

Key points

Electronic configuration is the base for constructing the periodic table

The table is useful for –


(a)Understanding the atomic structure of all the elements discovered so far
(b)Categorising elements based on common physical properties
(c)Predicting physical properties of molecules constructed by various atomic
combinations
Metalloids
Nonmetals
Metals

Nonmetals
Metals substances whose atoms tend to Metalloids
substances whose atoms tend to receive electrons Intermediate between metals and
give up electrons Poor electrical and heat nonmetals
Electrical and heat conductors conductors Most semiconductors are
Malleable and ductile Mostly gaseous, or soft solids metalloids
at 298 K
Transition metals, Lanthanides and actinides
Transition metals contain incomplete or partially complete d orbitals
Lanthanides and actinides contain f orbitals; most are rare earth elements, many are
radioactive

(Outer) Transition
metals

Lanthanides
Inner transition metals
Actinides
1s 1s

2s 2p
3s 3p
4s 3d 4p
5s 4d 5p
6s 5d 6p
7s 6d 7p

4f
5f
Periodic trends
Many periodic properties of atoms are due to their electron configurations

 Ionization energy: energy to remove an electron


 Electronegativity: tendency to attract an electron
 Effective nuclear Charge
 Atomic radius

A few more trends


 Metallic character
 Effective nuclear charge
 Diagonal relationship
Periodic trends
Atomic Radii
• atomic radii decrease from left to right across a row and increase from top to bottom down a
column. Because of these two trends, the largest atoms are found in the lower left corner of
the periodic table, and the smallest are found in the upper right corner.
• Trends in atomic size result from differences in the effective nuclear charges (Zeff)
experienced by electrons in the outermost orbitals of the elements. For all elements except
H, the effective nuclear charge is always less than the actual nuclear charge because of
shielding effects. The greater the effective nuclear charge, the more strongly the outermost
electrons are attracted to the nucleus and the smaller the atomic radius.
• Zeff = Z – S , Z = number of neutrons
Periodic trends
Ionization energy
• An ion is formed when either one or more electrons are removed from a neutral atom to form a
positive ion (cation) or when additional electrons attach themselves to neutral atoms to form a
negative one (anion)
• When one or more electrons is removed from a neutral atom, two things happen
- repulsions between electrons in the same principal shell decrease because fewer electrons are
present,
- the effective nuclear charge felt by the remaining electrons increases

the ionization energy (I) of an element as the amount of energy needed to remove an electron from
the gaseous atom E in its ground state. I is therefore the energy required for the reaction –
E (g)  E+ (g) + e-

If an atom possesses more than one electron, the amount of energy needed to remove successive
electrons increases steadily. We can define a first ionization energy (I1), a second
ionization energy (I2), and in general an nth ionization energy (In) according to the
following reactions:
E (g)  E+ (g) + e-
E+ (g)  E2+ (g) + e-
E2+ (g)  E3+ (g) + e-
And so on.
Periodic trends
Ionization energy

1st Ionization Energy

600
500
400
kcal/mol

300
200
100
0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
Atomic number
In general,
as we go across a period from left to right, the first ionization energy increases.

Why?
Electrons added in the same principal quantum level do not completely shield the increasing
nuclear charge caused by the added protons.
Electrons in the same principal quantum level are generally more strongly bound from left to
right on the periodic table.

as we go down a group from top to bottom, the first ionization energy decreases.
Why?
The electrons being removed are, on average, farther from the nucleus. A large radius typically
means a lower ionization energy.

Exceptions
Example: Al and S
the first ionization energy decreases at Al ([Ne]3s2 3p1 ) and at S ([Ne]3s2 3p4 ).
The electrons in aluminum’s filled 3s subshell are better at screening the 3p electron than
they are at screening each other from the nuclear charge, so the s electrons penetrate closer
to the nucleus than the p electron does and the p electron is more easily removed. The decrease
at S occurs because the two electrons in the same p orbital repel each other.

[VVVI] Because of the first two trends, the elements that form positive ions most easily (have the
lowest ionization energies) lie in the lower left corner of the periodic table, whereas those that
are hardest to ionize lie in the upper right corner of the periodic table.
Consequently, ionization energies generally increase diagonally from lower left (Cs) to upper right
(He).
Ionization energy of transition metals

- first ionization energies of the transition metals and the lanthanides change very
little across each row.
- Differences in their second and third ionization energies are also rather small,
in sharp contrast to the pattern seen with the s- and p-block elements.

The Reason:
Corresponding cations are formed when ns electrons from these atoms are excited
The d electrons shield the attraction between the ns electron and nucleus
This is similar for all of the transition metal elements.
Example problem
Use their locations in the periodic table to predict which element has the lowest first
ionization energy: Ca, K, Mg, Na, Rb, or Sr.

In order to solve this -


Locate the elements in the periodic table. Based on trends in ionization energies across
a row and down a column, identify the element with the lowest first ionization energy.

These six elements form a rectangle in the two far-left columns of the periodic table.
Because we know that ionization energies increase from left to right in a row and from
bottom to top of a column, we can predict that the element at the bottom left of the
rectangle will have the lowest first ionization energy: Rb.

Do yourself
Use their locations in the periodic table to predict which element has the highest
first ionization energy: As, Bi, Ge, Pb, Sb, or
Sn.
[Answer: As]
Electron affinity

This is the energy change associated with the addition of an electron to a gaseous atom.

X(g) + e– → X–(g)

Rules
- as we go across a period from left to right, the electron affinities become more negative, -
- electron affinity becomes more positive in going down a group.

Unlike ionization energies, which are always


positive for a neutral atom because energy
is required to remove an electron, electron
affinities can be negative (energy is released
when an electron is added), positive (energy
must be added to the system to produce an
anion), or zero (the process is
energetically neutral).
Electron affinity

Not as straight forward as the ionization energy.

In general, elements with the most negative electron affinities (the highest affinity for an
added electron) are those with the
smallest size and highest ionization energies and are located in the upper right corner of the
periodic table.
Atomic Radius
Comparing ionic and atomic radii
The building-up principle in work:
The Orbitals Being Filled for Elements in
Various Parts of the Periodic Table
Metals

Except hydrogen, all elements that form positive ions by losing electrons during chemical
reactions are called metals.

Physical properties
lustrous, malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity.
Other properties include -
- State: solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury, which is liquid at room
temperature
- Luster: reflect light from their surface and can be polished e.g., gold, silver and copper.
- Malleability: withstand hammering and can be made into thin sheets known as foils. For
example, a sugar cube sized chunk of gold can be pounded into a thin sheet that will cover a
football field.
- Ductility: can be drawn into wires.
- Hardness: All metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which are soft and can be cut with
a knife.
- Valency: 1 to 3 electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms.
- Conduction: good conductors because they have free electrons. Silver and copper are the two
best conductors of heat and electricity. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat. Bismuth,
mercury and iron are also poor conductors
- Density: high density and are very heavy. Iridium and osmium have the highest densities
whereas lithium has the
lowest density.
- Melting and Boiling Points: high melting and boiling points. Tungsten has the highest melting
and boiling points whereas mercury has the lowest. Sodium and potassium also have low melting
points.
Metals

Chemical Properties of Metals

Electropositive Character: ions form +1, +2, +3 charged states.

Oxide compounds: Compounds of metals with non-metals tend to be ionic in nature. Most metal
oxides are basic oxides and dissolve in water to form metal hydroxides.

Basic nature: Metal oxides exhibit their basic chemical nature by reacting with acids to form
(aqueous solutions of) metal salts and water.
Non-metals

Physical properties

Physical State: Most of the non-metals exist in two of the three states of matter at room
temperature: gases (oxygen) and solids (carbon). Only bromine exists as a liquid at room
temperature

Non-Malleable and Ductile: very brittle, cannot be rolled into wires or pounded into sheets

Conduction: poor conductors of heat and electricity

Seven non-metals exist under standard conditions as diatomic molecules.


H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

Chemical properties

Covalent: Compounds composed entirely of nonmetals are covalent substances. They generally form
acidic or neutral oxides with oxygen that that dissolve in water to form acids

Oxides: Nonmetal oxides can combine with bases to form salts.

Metalloids
- properties intermediate between the metals and nonmetals, useful in the semiconductor
industry
- these are all solid at room temperature. They can form alloys with other metals
Concept check

Question: Explain why the graph of ionization energy versus atomic


number (across a row) is not linear.
electron repulsions
Question: Where are the exceptions?
some include from Be to B and N to O

Question: Which atom would require more energy to remove an


electron? Why?
Na or Cl?
Ans : Cl, why? Think!

Question: Which has the larger second ionization energy? Why?


Lithium or Beryllium?
Ans: Lithium, why? Think!
Concept check
Which is larger?
The hydrogen 1s orbital
The lithium 1s orbital
Ans: first one

Which is lower in energy?


The hydrogen 1s orbital
The lithium 1s orbital
Ans: second one

Which should be the larger atom? Why?


Li or Cs?
Ans: Cs, why? Think!

Arrange the elements oxygen, fluorine, and sulfur according to increasing:


Ionization energy
S, O, F
Atomic size
F, O, S

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