Chapter Three

Spatial Variable
Measurement
 Displacement Sensors
Linear Displacement Sensor
• Resistive Displacement Sensor
• Inductive Displacement Sensor
• Capacitive Displacement Sensor
• Ultrasound Displacement Sensor
Angular Displacement Sensor
• Optical Encoder Displacement Sensor
• Inductive Tachogenerator Displacement Sensor
 Resistive Displacement Sensor
• Many industrial processes require both linear and
angular position and motion measurements.
• These are required in robotics, rolling mills,
machining operations, numerically controlled tool
applications, and conveyer.
• Measuring of displacement is the basis for measuring
position, velocity, acceleration, stress, force,
pressure….and the others.
 Potentiometer displacement sensor
• An electrically conductive wiper that slides against a
fixed resistive element is used as a voltage divider.
• To measure displacement a potentiometer is typically
wired in a “voltage divider” configuration.
• A known voltage is applied to the resister ends. The
contact is attached to the moving object of interest.
• The output voltage at the contact is proportional to
the displacement.
Potentiometer Displacement sensor
 Potentiometer displacement sensor
 The resistance change is then converted to a
proportional voltage change in the electrical circuit of
the sensor.
 Hence, the relationship between the measured
physical variable, translational displacement x or
rotary displacement θ, and the output voltage for an
ideal potentiometer is:

where the sensitivity, (k * Vr ) , of the potentiometer is

a function of the winding resistance and physical
shape of the winding.
 Inductive Displacement Sensors
• Inductive sensors are primarily based on the
principles of magnetic circuits. They can be classified
as self-generating or passive.
• The self-generating types utilize an electrical
generator principle; that is, when there is a relative
motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in the conductor.
• Or, a varying magnetic field linking a stationary
conductor produces voltage in the conductor.
 Inductive Displacement Sensor
• The magnetic circuit consists of a
core, made from a ferromagnetic
material, with a coil of n number of
turns wound on it. The coil acts as a
source of magnetomotive force
(mmf) which drives the flux Φ
through the magnetic circuit. If one
assumes that the air gap is zero, the
equation for the magnetic circuit can
be expressed as:
Inductive Displacement Sensor
 Inductive Displacement Sensor
• The arrangement illustrated in the figure becomes a basic
inductive sensor if the air gap is allowed to vary.
• In this case, the ferromagnetic core is separated into two parts
by the air gap.
• The total reluctance of the circuit now is the addition of the
reluctance of core and the reluctance of air gap.
• The presence of the air gap causes a large increase in circuit
reluctance and a corresponding decrease in the flux. Hence, a
small variation in the air gap causes a measurable change in
inductance. Most of the inductive transducers are based on
these principles.
 Single-Coil linear Variable Reluctance
Sensor
The sensor consists of
• A ferromagnetic core in the
shape of a semicircular ring
• A variable air gap
• A ferromagnetic plate
(armature)
• The total reluctance of the
magnetic circuit is the sum
of the individual reluctances
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
• The linear variable-differential transformer, LVDT, is a passive inductive
transducer finding many applications. It consists of a single primary winding
positioned between two identical secondary windings wound on a tubular
ferromagnetic material.
• The primary winding is energized by a high-frequency 50 Hz to 20 kHz ac
voltage. The two secondary windings are made identical by having an equal
number of turns and similar geometry. They are connected in series opposition
so that the induced output voltages oppose each other.
• The output voltages of individual secondaries v1 and v2 at null position are
illustrated in the following Figure . However, in opposing connection, any
displacement in the core position x from the null point causes amplitude of the
voltage output vo and the phase difference α to change.
• The ferromagnetic core or plunger moves freely
inside, thus altering the mutual inductance between
the primary and secondaries.
• With the core in the center, or at the reference
position, the induced emfs in the secondaries are
equal; and since they oppose each other, the output
voltage is zero.
• When the core moves, say in the upper direction,
from the center, more magnetic flux links the upper
coil than the bottom coil. The voltage induced in the
upper coil is therefore larger than the induced voltage
on the bottom coil.
• The magnitude of the output voltage
is then larger than at the null position
and is equal to the difference between
the two secondary voltages. The net
output voltage is in phase with the
voltage of the upper coil.
• The output of the device is then an
indication of the displacement of the
core. Similarly, movement in the
opposite direction to the bottom from
the center reverses this effect, and the
output voltage is now in phase with
the emf of the bottom coil.
 Capacitive Displacement Sensor
• The basic sensing element of a typical displacement
sensor consists of two simple electrodes with capacitance
C. The capacitance is a function of the distance d (cm)
between the electrodes of a structure, the surface area A
(cm2) of the electrodes, and the permittivity ε (8.85 ×
10–12 F m–1 for air) of the dielectric between the
electrodes; therefore:

• There are three basic methods for realizing a capacitive

displacement sensor: by varying d, A, or ε, as discussed
below.
 Variable Distance Displacement Sensors
• A capacitor
displacement sensor,
made from two flat
coplanar plates with a
variable distance x
apart, is illustrated in
Figure. Ignoring fringe
effects, the capacitance
of this arrangement
can be expressed by:
 Variable Area Displacement capacitor
Sensors
• Alternatively,
capacitive sensors can
be developed by
varying the surface
area of the electrodes
of a flat plate
capacitor, as
illustrated in Figure.
In this case, the
capacitance would be:
 Variable Dielectric Displacement Capacitive
Sensors
• In some cases capacitive sensors
can be developed by the relative
movement of the dielectric
material between the plates, as
shown in Figure .The
corresponding equations would
be:

Where:
-the relative permittivity of the
dielectric material.
-the permittivity of the displacing
material.
 Ultrasound Displacement Sensor
• Ultrasound is an acoustic wave with a frequency higher
than the audible range of the human ear, which is 20 kHz.
• A pulse of ultrasound is transmitted in a medium. When
the pulse reaches an another medium, it is totally or
partially reflected, and the elapsed time from emission to
detection of the reflected pulse is measured. This time
depends on the distance and the velocity of the sound.
• When sound travels with a known velocity c, the time t
elapsed between the outgoing signal and its incoming echo
is a measure of the distance d to the object causing the
echo.
Ultrasound Displacement Sensor
 Advantages of Ultrasonic Sensors
• Unaffected by Smoke, dust, fog or steam
• Detect small objects over long distance
• Independent of target color
• Independent of environmental noise (light or
temperature)
• Long life span
Optical Encoder Displacement Sensor
 Types of Encoders

Encoder

Rotary Linear
Encoder Encoder

Increme Absol Wire Linear with

ntal ute Draw Scale

Increme Absol
ntal ute
 Optical Encoder Displacement Sensor
• The most popular type of encoder is the optical encoder, which
consists of a rotating disk, a light source, and a photo detector
(light sensor). The disk, which is mounted on the rotating shaft,
has coded patterns of opaque and transparent sectors. As the disk
rotates, these patterns interrupt the light emitted onto the photo
detector, generating a digital or pulse signal output.
• Optical encoders are used to measure either angular or linear
positions.
• Those used for angular detection are commonly called rotary or
shaft encoders, since they usually detect the rotation of a shaft.
Fig: Optical encoder for measurement of position and speed of the rotary system

25
Fig: Quadrature incremental optical encoder with two patterns
26
 Optical Encoder

incremental encoders
Absolute encoders
 Absolute Optical Encoder
•
 Absolute Optical
Encoder

Binary coded Gray coded

encoder grating encoder
grating
 Incremental Encoder

• The shaft-mounted disk has a series of

alternating dark and light sectors of equal
length and in equal numbers. The dark and
light code is detected by a stationary mask with
two apertures, A and B, displaced one quarter
of a cycle from each other. When a light sector
covers a window,a1signal is produced, and a 0
results from a dark sector. At a transition, a
rising or falling signal occurs.
 Incremental Encoder
• The resulting cleaned A and B signals are two square
waves 90° out of phase and are called quadrature signals.
• Since the A and B signals have only four possible states,
they clearly do not provide a means of distinguishing more
than four different locations. As a result, absolute position
discrimination is only possible within one quadrature
cycle.
• Instead, the quadrature signals are used to increment or
decrement a counter that gives the actual position. The
counter is initialized (usually reset) on a z-phase signal
produced on a separate track.
  Speed measurement sensor
 optical method
 Incremental encoder
 Tacho generator
 1 Optical methods
• Linear speeds can be measured by determining the
time between when the moving object breaks one
beam of radiation and when it breaks a second beam
some measured distance away (Figure ). Breaking the
first beam can be used to start an electronic clock and
breaking the second beam to stop the clock.
 2 Incremental encoder
• The incremental encoder can be used for a
measurement of angular speed or a rotating
shaft, the number of pulses produced per
second being counted.
 3 Tacho generator
• The basic tacho generator consists of a coil mounted in a magnetic
field . When the coil rotates electromagnetic induction results in an
alternating e.m.f being induced in the coil. The faster the coil
rotates the greater the size of the alternating e.m.f
• Thus the size of the alternating e.m.f is a measure of the angular
speed. Typically such a sensor can be used up to 10 000 revs per
minute and has a non-linearity error of about ±1% of the full range
 Proximity Sensors
• Proximity sensor or detectors provide information on the
displacement of a body with respect to some boundary, but
only insofar as to say whether the body is less than or
greater than a certain distance away from the boundary. The
output of a proximity sensor is thus binary in nature: the
body is or is not close to the boundary.
Types of proximity sensors
1. optical proximity sensor
2. Inductive proximity sensor
3. Capacitive proximity sensor
4. Ultrasonic proximity sensor
1. Inductive Proximity Sensor
• The inductive proximity sensor is called so for using inductance principles to detect
the presence of a metal target, without making any physical contact. One of the most
common types of this sensor is the eddy current proximity sensor.
• These sensors primarily consist of an oscillator, a coil around a ferrite core, and
a Schmitt trigger. Here’s now see how an inductive proximity sensor works:
– During operation, the oscillator generates an alternating current that produces an
alternating electromagnetic field around the coil.
– This field radiates from the coil to form the detection zone.
– If a metallic object enters this detection zone, the oscillating magnetic field
induces electric currents in its body. These are called eddy currents.
– The eddy currents then start producing an alternating magnetic field, interfering
with the original oscillating field from the sensor and changing its properties.
– This change activates the Schmitt trigger and the sensor is able to detect.
– Note that these types of proximity sensors cannot detect non-metallic objects as
such materials will not produce Eddy currents.
 Application: One of the benefits of inductive sensors is their ability to operate in
contaminated environments: they’re resistant to the presence of oil, dirt, and
even moisture. Inductive proximity sensors are, therefore, widely used in
industrial, automotive, and machine tool applications.
2. Capacitive Proximity Sensor
• The capacitive proximity sensor uses an electric field to detect the presence of a
target object. It’s basically an open capacitor whose other plate is replaced by
the target, while the air between the sensor plate and target forms the dielectric.
Here is how a capacitive proximity sensor works:
– When the target enters the sensor’s range, it forms a capacitance with its
sensing plate, which increases as the object draws nearer.
– This action changes the capacitance value of the circuit, which in turn
produces an electrical signal used to detect presence.
– The capacitive sensor can detect both metals and nonmetals. These can be
powders, granules and liquids or even solid objects.
– Because the working principle of capacitive proximity sensor is based on
the gradual increase of the capacitance, its sensing speed is generally lower
than that of inductive sensors.
• Application: Capacitive proximity sensors are used in a wide range of
applications, including food and beverage production processes, level detection,
material handling, automation control systems and other industrial
environments. In the world of electronics, this is the type of proximity sensor
for mobile phone or tablet sensing applications.
3. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
• The ultrasonic sensor is somewhat different from inductive and capacitive
sensors. These types of proximity sensors work by emitting ultrasonic waves—
or sound waves with a frequency higher than the upper limit of human
hearing, which is around 20 kHz. The working of ultrasonic proximity sensor is
described below:
– The ultrasonic sensor consists of these parts: transmitter, receiver, signal processor,
amplifier and power supply module, and works by sending out high-frequency sound
pulses.
– When the sound waves encounter an obstacle, they will bounce back to the receiver.
– The receiver then uses this information to determine the presence as well as distance
between the object and the sensor.
– Ultrasonic proximity sensors offer fast detection speed, even for small objects, and
have a wide sensing range. They can also detect both solid and liquid targets in their
sensing zone.

• Application: Ultrasonic proximity sensors are mainly used in robotics, obstacle

detection and avoidance systems, industrial automation, parking sensors, etc.
In addition, these types of sensors can also pick up vibrations, making them
suitable for vibration monitoring applications.
4. Optical Proximity Sensor
• The optical proximity sensor works on the principle of light reflection.
The light is either the visible or infrared spectrum. The sensor emits
light towards a target object and measures the amount of reflected
light back to it.
– In most cases, the optical proximity sensors are used in conjunction with an
infrared LED or laser diode. When a target object is near enough to the
sensor, it reflects some of the light energy back to the detector.
– This will then be amplified and used as an electrical signal to detect the
presence of the object.
– The optical proximity sensors are usually not affected by dust, dirt or
moisture.
– They also have a high resolution and can detect even very small objects in
their sensing range with ease.
• Application: Optical proximity sensors are widely used for level
detection in liquids, position sensing in machines and automation
processes. They are also used as metal detectors in security systems
and access control devices. These types of proximity sensors have also
found application in navigation systems for cars or drones.
 STRESS AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
• Measurement of stress in a mechanical component is important when
assessing whether or not the component is subjected to safe load levels.
• Stress and strain measurements can also be used to indirectly measure
other physical quantities such as force (by measuring strain of a flexural
element), pressure (by measuring strain in a flexible diaphragm), and
temperature (by measuring thermal expansion of a material).
• The most common transducer used to measure strain is the electrical
resistance strain gage.
• The most common transducer for experimentally measuring strain in a
mechanical component is the bonded metal foil strain gage.
• It consists of a thin foil of metal, usually constantan, deposited as a grid
pattern onto a thin plastic backing material, usually polyimide.
• The foil pattern is terminated at both ends with large metallic pads that
allow leadwires to be easily attached with solder .
• To measure strain on the surface of a machine component or structural member, the gage is
adhesively bonded directly to the component.
• The backing makes the foil gage easy to handle and provides agood bonding surface that also
electrically insulates the metal foil from the component. Leadwires are then soldered to the solder
tabs on the gage.
• When the component is loaded, the metal foil deforms, and the resistance changes in a predictable
way.
• If this resistance change is measured accurately, the strain on the surface of the component can be
determined.
• Strain measurements allow us to determine the state of stress on the surface of the component,
where stresses typically have their highest values .
• Knowing stresses at critical locations on a component under load can help a designer validate
analytical or numerical results (e.g., from a finite element analysis) and verify that stress levels
remain below safe limits for the material (e.g., below the yield strength).
• To understand how a strain gage is used to measure strain, we first look at how the resistance of the
foil changes when deformed.
• The metal foil grid lines in the active portion of the gage (see Figure below) can be approximated
by a single rectangular conductor , whose total resistance is given by

• where ρ is the foil metal resistivity, L is the total length of the grid lines, and A is the
grid line cross-sectional area.
 Summery(Assignment 1)
• Write advantages and disadvantages of displacement
sensors discussed.
• Discus with examples, how to select displacement
sensors for different application.
• Discus about time constants of different displacement
sensor.
• Discus about proximity sensors with industrial
process example.
 Principles of Temperature Measurement
oThermal expansion
• Instruments to measure
oThe thermoelectric effect
temperature can be
divided into separate oResistance change
classes according to the oSensitivity of semiconductor
physical principle on device
which they operate. The oRadiative heat emission
main principles used are: oResonant frequency change
oColor change
oChange of state of material.
 1. Bi-materials Thermometer
• Two metal strips of differing thermal
expansion are bonded together. When the
temperature of the assembly is changed,
in the absence of external forces, the
bimetallic transducer will take the shape
of an arc.
• To maximize the bending of the actuator,
metals or alloys with greatly differing
coefficients of thermal expansion are
normally selected. The metal having the
largest thermal expansivity is known as
the active element, while the metal
having the smaller coefficient of
expansion is known as the passive
element.
 Thermocouple
• The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device.
• It uses for measuring the temperature at one particular
point. In other words, it is a type of sensor used for
measuring the temperature in the form of an electric
current or the EMF.
• The thermocouple consists two wires of different
metals which are welded together at the ends. The
welded portion creating the junction where the
temperature is used to be measured.
• The variation in temperature of the wire induces the
voltages.
 Working Principle of
•
Thermocouple
The working principle of the thermocouple depends
on the see back effect.
• See back Effect – The See back effect occurs between
two different metals, When heat is provided to any
one of the metals, the electrons start flowing from
hot metal to cold metal. Thus, direct current induces
in the circuit.
Seeback effect
 Resistance
Thermometer( RTD)
• Definition:- The resistance thermometer or resistance temperature
detector (RTD) uses the resistance of electrical conductor for measuring
the temperature.
• The resistance of the conductor varies with the temprature. This property of the
conductor is used for measuring the temperature.
• The main function of the RTD is to give a positive
change in resistance with temperature.
 RTD’S working principles

 RTD’s working principle based on the fact that electrical

resistance of the substance changes with the change in its
temperature.
 This substance can be a metal, or non-metal like
semiconductor.
 Hence any change in the temperature of a metal can be
measured in terms of a change in its electrical resistance.
 The electrical conductivity of a metal depends on the
movement of electrons through its crystal lattice.
 4. Thermistor
• Thermistors are manufactured
from beads of semiconductor
material prepared from oxides
of the iron group of metals such
as chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel.
• Thermistors have a negative
temperature coefficient, i.e. the
resistance decreases as the
temperature increases,
according to:
 Optical Pyrometer

• Definition: The optical pyrometer is a non-contact

type temperature measuring device. It works on the
principle of matching the brightness of an object to
the brightness of the filament which is placed inside
the pyrometer.
• The optical pyrometer is used for measuring the
temperature of the furnaces, molten metals, and other
overheated material or liquids.
• It is not possible to measures the temperature of the
highly heated body with the help of the contact type
instrument. Hence the non-contact pyrometer is used
for measuring their temperature.
 Construction of Optical Pyrometer
• The construction of the optical pyrometer is quite
simple. The pyrometer is cylindrical inside which the
lens is placed on one end and the eyepiece on the
other end. The lamp is kept between the eyepiece and
the lens. The filter is placed in front of the eyepiece.
The filter helps in getting the monochromatic light.
The lamp has the filament which is connected to the
battery, ammeter and the rheostat.
 Working of Optical Pyrometer
• The optical pyrometer is shown in the figure below. It consists
the lens which focuses the radiated energy from the heated
object and targets it on the electric filament lamp. The
intensity of the filament depends on the current passes through
it. Hence the adjustable current is passed through the lamp.
• An eye piece at one end and an objective lens at the other
end.
• A power source (battery), rheostat and milli voltmeter (to
measure current) connected to a reference temperature bulb.
• An absorption screen is placed in between the objective lens
and reference temperature
lamp.
• The absorption screen is used to increase the range of the
temperature which can be measured by the instrument.
• The red filter between the eye piece and the lamp allows only
a narrow band of wavelength.
• The magnitude of the current is adjusted until the
brightness of the filament is similar to the brightness of the
object.
• When the brightness of the filament and the brightness of
the object are same, then the outline of the filament is
completely disappeared.

• The filament looks bright when their temperature is more

than the temperature of the source.
• The filament looks dark if their temperature is less
than that required for equal brightness
Advantages of Optical Pyrometer
• The optical pyrometer has high accuracy.
• The temperature is measured without contacting the
heated body. Because of this property, the pyrometer
is used for the number of applications.
Disadvantages of Optical Pyrometer

• The working of the pyrometer depends on the intensity of

light emitted by the heated body. Thereby, the pyrometer is
used for measuring the temperature having a temperature
more than 700-degree Celsius. The accuracy of the
pyrometer depends on the adjustment of the filament
current. Also, the pyrometer is not used for measuring the
temperature of clean gases.
 Summery (Assignment 2)
• Advantage and disadvantage of different
temperature sensor.
• discus about time constants of different temperature
sensors.
• discus how to select a given temperature sensor for
different application.
• Which of the sensors discussed can be used for
automatic control?
Mechanical Variable
Measurement
• Level Measurement Principles of Level
• Force Measurement Measurement
• Flow measurement • Measurements Using Float,
• Torque and Power Measurement Pressure Gages,
• Pressure Measurement • Balance Method
• Velocity and Acceleration Measurement
Ultrasound, Level
Measurements by Detecting
Physical Properties and
Electrical Properties.
 Level Measurement
• Level is defined as the filling height of a liquid or
bulk material, for example, in a tank or reservoir.
Generally, the position of the surface is measured
relative to a reference plane, usually the tank bottom.
If the product’s surface is not flat (e.g., with foam,
waves, turbulences, or with coarse-grained bulk
material) level usually is defined as the average
height of a bounded area.
 Float Level Sensor
• the density of the float must be lower
than the density of the liquid.
• Principle of operation for float level
meters.
• (a) A counter weight balances the float
that swims on the liquid’s surface. Its
position represents the level.
• (b) The float contains a magnet that
contacts a reed switch inside a guide
tube. Using a bi-stable relay, this system
is used as a level switch. One can also
insert multiple relays into the tube to
achieve different switching points for
quasi-continuous operation.
Pressure Gage Level Measurement
• The hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid is directly
proportional to its depth and hence to the level of its surface.
• Several instruments are available that use this principle, and
they are widely used in many industries, particularly in harsh
chemical environments. In the case of open-topped vessels (or
covered ones that are vented to the atmosphere), the level can
be measured by inserting a pressure sensor at the bottom of the
vessel, as shown in Figure (a).
• The liquid level h is then related to the measured pressure P
according to , where is the liquid density and is the
acceleration due to gravity.
 Pressure Gage Level Measurement
• One source of error in this method can be imprecise
knowledge of the liquid density.
• This can be a particular problem in the case of liquid
solutions and mixtures (especially hydrocarbons), and in
some cases only an estimate of density is available. Even
with single liquids, the density is subject to variation with
temperature
• When liquid-containing vessels are totally sealed, the
liquid level can be calculated by measuring the differential
pressure between the top and bottom of the tank as
shown in Figure (b).
 Capacitive Level Sensor
• Capacitive devices are widely used for measuring the level
of both liquids and solids in powdered or granular form.
• They perform well in many applications, but become
inaccurate if the measured substance is prone to
contamination by agents that change the dielectric constant.
• They are also suitable for use in extreme conditions
measuring liquid metals (high temperatures), liquid gases
(low temperatures), corrosive liquids (acids, etc.) and high
pressure processes.
• Two versions are used according to whether the measured
substance is conducting or not.
 Capacitive Level Sensor
• For non-conducting substances, two bare-metal
capacitor plates in the form of concentric
cylinders are immersed in the substance, as
shown in Figure. The substance behaves as a
dielectric between the plates according to the
depth of the substance. For concentric cylinder
plates of radius a and b (b > a), and total height
L, the depth of the substance h is related to the
measured capacitance C by:

where ε is the relative permittivity of the measured

substance and is the permittivity of free space.
 Ultrasonic Level Sensor
• Ultrasonic level measurement
is one of a number of non-
contact techniques available.
• The principle of the ultrasonic
level gauge is that energy from
an ultrasonic source above the
liquid is reflected back from
the liquid surface into an
ultrasonic energy detector, as
illustrated in Figure.
Measurement of the time of
flight allows the liquid level to
be inferred.
 Force Measurement
• An unknown force may be measured by the following means:
1. Balancing the unknown force against a standard mass
through a system of levers.
2. Measuring the acceleration of a known mass.
3. Equalizing it to a magnetic force generated by the
interaction of a current-carrying coil and a magnet.
4. Distributing the force on a specific area to generate
pressure, and then measuring the pressure.
5. Converting the applied force into the deformation of an
elastic matrial.
 Force Measurement
• If a force of magnitude, F, is applied to a body of
mass, M, the body will accelerate at a rate, a,
according to the equation:

• One way of measuring an unknown force is

therefore to measure the acceleration when it is
applied to a body of known mass.
• An alternative technique is to measure the variation
in the resonant frequency of a vibrating wire as it is
tensioned by an applied force.
 Force Measurement Using Strain Gage
• The strain gage load cell consists of a structure that
elastically deforms when subjected to a force and a strain
gage network that produces an electrical signal proportional
to this deformation. Examples of this are beam and ring
types of load cells.
• As the gage is stressed, the resulting strain deforms the
strain gage and the cross-sectional area diminishes. This
causes an increase in resistivity of the gage that is easily
determined. In order to measure very small strains, it is
necessary to measure small changes of the resistance per
unit resistance . The change in the resistance of a bonded
strain gage is usually less than 0.5%.
 Force Measurement Using Strain Gage

• A Wheatstone
bridge is usually
used to measure
this small order of
magnitude.
 Force Measurement Using Strain Gage
• In order to demonstrate how a Wheatstone
bridge operates, a voltage scale has been drawn
at points C and D in the above figure. Assume
that R1 is a bonded gage. If R1 is now stretched
so that its resistance increases by one unit (+∆R),
the voltage at point D will be increased from zero
to plus one unit of voltage (+∆V), and there will
be a voltage difference of one unit between C
and D that will give rise to a current through C.
 Force Measurement Using Strain Gage
• If R4 is also a bonded gage, and at the same time
that R1 changes by +∆R, R4 changes by –∆R, the
voltage at D will move to +2∆V. Also, if at the same
time, R2 changes by –∆R, and R3 changes by +∆R,
then the voltage of point C will move to –2∆V, and
the voltage difference between C and D will now
be 4∆V. It is then apparent that although a single
gage can be used, the sensitivity can be increased
fourfold if two gages are used in tension while two
others are used in compression.
 Force Measurement Using Piezoelectric
Effect
• A piezoelectric material exhibits a
phenomenon known as the piezoelectric
effect. This effect states that when
asymmetrical, elastic crystals are
deformed by a force, an electrical
potential will be developed within the
distorted crystal lattice.

Where:
d- Charge Sensitivity
F- applied force
C- capacitance of the crystal
 Force Measurement Using Inductive
Method
• The inductive method utilizes the fact that a change in
mechanical stress of a ferromagnetic material causes its
permeability to alter. The changes in magnetic flux are
converted into induced voltages in the pickup coils as the
movement takes place. This phenomenon is known as the
Villari effect or magnetostriction. It is known to be particularly
strong in nickel–iron alloys.
• Transducers utilizing the Villari effect consist of a coil wound
on a core of magnetostrictive material. The force to be
measured is applied on this core, stressing it and causing a
change in its permeability and inductance. This change can be
monitored and used for determining the force.
 Capacitive Force Measurement
• A transducer that uses capacitance variation can
be used to measure force. The force is directed
onto a membrane whose elastic deflection is
detected by a capacitance variation. A highly
sensitive force transducer can be constructed
because the capacitive transducer senses very
small deflections accurately. An electronic circuit
converts the capacitance variations into dc-
voltage variations.
 Torque Measurement:
Using Reaction Force in Shaft Bearings
• Any system involving torque transmission
through a shaft contains both a power
source and a power absorber where the
power is dissipated.
• The magnitude of the transmitted torque
can be measured by holding either the
power source or the power absorber end
of the shaft in bearings, and then
measuring the reaction force, F, and the
arm length L, as shown in Figure. The
torque is then calculated as the simple
product, FL. Inherent errors in the method
are bearing friction and windage torques.
 Torque Measurement:
Using Prony Brake
• The principle of the Prony brake is illustrated in Figure. It
is used to measure the torque in a rotating shaft and
consists of a rope wound round the shaft. One end of the
rope is attached to a spring balance and the other end
carries a load in the form of a standard mass, m. If the
measured force in the spring balance is Fs, then the
effective force, Fe, exerted by the rope on the shaft is
given by:

• a lot of heat is generated because of friction between

the rope and shaft, and water cooling is usually
necessary.
 Torque Measurement:
Using Strain Gage
• The method involves bonding four strain gauges onto the
shaft as shown in Figure, where the strain gauges are
arranged in a d.c. bridge circuit. The output from the bridge
circuit is a function of the strain in the shaft and hence of the
torque applied. It is very important that the positioning of the
strain gauges on the shaft is precise, and the difficulty in
achieving this makes the instrument relatively expensive.
 Torque Measurement:
Optical Torque Measurement
• Two black-and-white striped
wheels are mounted at either end
of the rotating shaft and are in
alignment when no torque is
applied to the shaft.
• Light from a laser diode light
source is directed by a pair of
optic-fibre cables onto the wheels.
• The rotation of the wheels causes
pulses of reflected light and these
are transmitted back to a receiver
by a second pair of fibre-optic
cables.
 Torque Measurement:
Optical Torque Measurement
• Under zero torque conditions, the two pulse
trains of reflected light are in phase with each
other.
• If torque is now applied to the shaft, the
reflected light is modulated. Measurement by
the receiver of the phase difference between
the reflected pulse trains therefore allows the
magnitude of torque in the shaft to be
calculated.
 Flow Measurement
Principles of Flow
• Level Measurement
Measurement
• Velocity Measurement
• Force Measurement
• Differential pressure
• Torque and Power obstruction type
Measurement • Turbine Meters
• Flow measurement • Ultrasonic flow meter
• Pressure Measurement
 Types of flow sensor
Obstruction type
Differential pressure flow meters
• Venturimeters
• Orifice meters
Rotameters
Turbine flow meters
non-obstructive
Electromagnetic flow meters
Ultrasonic flow meters
 Venturi meters
• Is a device used to measuring rate of flow of fluid flowing
through a pipe.
• It is a type of obstruction meter .
• Venturi meter act as an obstruction (obstacle) in the path of
fluid flowing in the pipe.
• Due to the obstruction , there is a change in pressure of the
fluid before and after the obstruction.
• This pressure difference is dependent on the flow rate of fluid.
• Differential pressure sensor is used to measure this pressure
difference and flow rate can be determined.
• It is indirect method for fluid flow rate measurement.
 Principle of Venturimeter

• The working of venturimeter is based on the principle of

Bernoulli’s equation.
• Bernoulli’s Statement: It states that in a steady, ideal flow
of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point
of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy or
datum energy.
• Mathematically here all the energies are taken per unit
weight of the fluid.
• The Bernoulli’s equation for the fluid passing through the
section 1 and 2 are given by
1.Short converging part: It is a tapered portion whose radius decreases as we move
forward.
2.Throat: It is middle portion of the venturi. Here the velocity of the fluid increases and
pressure decreases. It possesses the least cross section area.
3.Diverging part: In this portion the fluid diverges.
 Working
• considered two cross section, first at the inlet and the second one is at
the throat.
• The difference in the pressure heads of these two sections is used to
calculate the rate of flow .
• through venturimeter, The throat has the uniform cross section area
and least cross section area in the venturimeter.
• As the water enters in the throat its velocity gets increases and due to
increase in the velocity the pressure drops to the minimum.
• Now there is a pressure difference of the fluid at the two sections. At
the section 1(i.e. at the inlet) the pressure of the fluid is maximum and
the velocity is minimum and at the section 2 (i.e. at the throat) the
velocity of the fluid is maximum and the pressure is minimum.
• The pressure difference at the two section can be seen in the
manometer attached at both the section.
• This pressure difference is used to calculate the rate flow of a fluid
 Orifice Meter
• An Orifice Meter is basically a type of flow meter
used to measure the rate of flow of Liquid or Gas,
especially Steam, using the Differential Pressure
Measurement principle.
• As the name implies, it consists of an Orifice Plate
which is the basic element of the instrument. When
this Orifice Plate is placed in a line, a differential
pressure is developed across the Orifice Plate.
conti.
 Principle:
• An obstruction (orifice) is placed in a pipe filled
with fluid. The pressure of the fluid is measured
at two different points: 1) just upstream of the
orifice and, 2) close to the contraction of the
fluid (vena contracta). The difference in these
two pressures is known as differential pressure.
• The differential pressure across an obstruction
(orifice) in a pipe of fluid is proportional to the
square of the velocity of the fluid.
 Rotameter
• Rotameter: is a fluid flow rate measuring device
which is also called a variable area meter. This
device has a long vertical tube which is transparent
to view the measurements on a scale, which is
according to the flow of fluid through it. to
recording this measurement there is an electrical
transmitter.
 CONSTRUCTION OF A ROTAMETER:
• transparent tube :this tube is in a conical shape which
has a measurement scale and floats inside it, this
transparent tube helps to see the measurements directly.
• float: float is small equipment with accurate dimensions
placed inside the tube which helps to indicate the flow
rate in the tube. this can be made with glass, metals or
plastic.
• scale: scale shows the measurements of flow by
indicating with float.
• transmitters: this device helps to record the
measurements accurately than we see on the scale
directly. they work with an electricity supply
Conti.
 WORKING OF A ROTAMETER
• The fluid in rotameter used to flow from
downwards to up and in the middle of the device
there is a scale which used to given an output
flow rate, when the fluid there is an increase or
decrease in flow, by this flow the float used to
move up and down.
 Flow Measurement
Turbine Meters
• A turbine flowmeter consists
of a multi-bladed wheel
mounted in a pipe along an
axis parallel to the direction
of fluid flow in the pipe, as
shown in Figure.
• The flow of fluid past the
wheel causes it to rotate at a
rate that is proportional to
the volume flow rate of the
fluid.
 Flow Measurement
Turbine Meters
• This rate of rotation has traditionally been measured
by constructing the flowmeter such that it behaves as
a variable reluctance tachogenerator.
• This is achieved by fabricating the turbine blades
from a ferromagnetic material and placing a
permanent magnet and coil inside the meter housing.
• A voltage pulse is induced in the coil as each blade
on the turbine wheel moves past it, and if these
pulses are measured by a pulse counter, the pulse
frequency and hence flow rate can be deduced.
 Ultrasonic flow meters cont’d
• Ultrasonic flow meters operate using the
transit-time differential method. TheTransit-
time differential measurement is based on a
simple physical fact.
• Imagine two canoes crossing a river on the
same diagonal line, one with the flow and the
other against the flow. The canoe moving with
the flow needs much less time to reach the
opposite bank.
 Ultrasonic flow meters cont’d
• Ultrasonic waves behave exactly the same way.
A sound wave travelling in the direction of flow
of the product is propagated at a faster rate than
one travelling against the flow (vAB > vBA).
• Transit times tAB and tBA are measured
continuously. The difference (tBA – tAB) in
time travelled by the two ultrasonic waves is
directly proportional to the mean flow velocity.
Ultrasonic flow meters cont’d
 Electromagnetic Flowmeters
• The principle of application of Faraday’s law to
an electromagnetic flowmeter is given in Figure
• The magnetic field, the direction of the
movement of the conductor, and the induced emf
are all perpendicular to each other.
• In the case of electromagnetic flowmeters, the conductor is the
liquid flowing through the pipe, and the length of the conductor is
the distance between the two electrodes, which is equal to the tube
diameter.
• The velocity of the conductor is proportional to the mean flow
velocity of the liquid. Hence, the induced voltage becomes:
e=BDv
Q=Av
A = πD2 4
 Construction of practical flowmeters.
• The magnetic coils create a magnetic field that
passes through the flow tube and process fluid. As
the conductive fluid flows through the flowmeter, a
voltage is induced between the electrodes in
contact with the process liquid. The electrodes are
placed at positions where maximum potential
differences occur.
 Pressure Measurement
Principles of Pressure
• Level Measurement Measurement
• Force Measurement
• Diaphragms
• Torque and Power
Measurement • Bellows
• Flow measurement • Bourdon Tube
• Pressure Measurement
 Pressure Measurement
• Absolute pressure: This is the difference between the
pressure of the fluid and the absolute zero of pressure.
• Gauge pressure: This describes the difference between
the pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure.
Absolute and gauge pressure are therefore related by
the expression:

• Differential pressure: This term is used to describe the

difference between two absolute pressure values, such
as the pressures at two different points within the same
fluid
 Diaphragm
• Applied pressure causes displacement of
the diaphragm and this movement is
measured by a displacement transducer.
• Different versions of diaphragm sensors
can measure both absolute pressure (up
to 50 bar) and gauge pressure (up to 2000
bar) according to whether the space on
one side of the diaphragm is respectively
evacuated or is open to the atmosphere.
• A diaphragm can also be used to measure
differential pressure (up to 2.5 bar) by
applying the two pressures to the two
sides of the diaphragm.
 Bellows
• The bellows, schematically illustrated in Figure, is another elastic-
element type of pressure sensor that operates on very similar
principles to the diaphragm pressure sensor.
• Pressure changes within the bellows, which is typically fabricated
as a seamless tube of either metal or metal alloy, produce
translational motion of the end of the bellows that can be measured
by capacitive, inductive (LVDT) or potentiometric transducers.
Different versions can measure either absolute pressure (up to 2.5
bar) or gauge pressure (up to 150 bar).
 Bourdon Tube
• It consists of a specially shaped
piece of oval-section, flexible,
metal tube that is fixed at one end
and free to move at the other end.
• When pressure is applied at the
open, fixed end of the tube, the
oval cross-section becomes more
circular. In consequence, there is a
displacement of the free end of the
tube.
• This displacement is measured by
some form of displacement
transducer, which is commonly a
potentiometer or LVDT.
 Manometers
• Manometers are passive instruments that
give a visual indication of pressure values.
• The U-tube manometer, shown in Figure ,
is the most common form of manometer.
Applied pressure causes a displacement
of liquid inside the U-shaped glass tube
• The output pressure reading P is made by
observing the difference h between the
level of liquid in the two halves of the
tube A and B, according to the equation ,
where is the specific gravity of the fluid.
 Manometers
• If an unknown pressure is applied to side A, and
side B is open to the atmosphere, the output
reading is gauge pressure.
• Alternatively, if side B of the tube is sealed and
evacuated, the output reading is absolute
pressure.
• The U-tube manometer also measures the
differential pressure , according to the expression ,
if two unknown pressures and are applied
respectively to sides A and B of the tube.