ORIGIN OF BIO POTENTIAL

• Bioelectric potentials are produced as a result of electrochemical

activity of a criteria class of cells known as excitable cells that are
components of nerves, muscular and glandular tissue.
• The origins of biopotentials can be traced to the electric activity at the
cellular cell.
• The electric potential across a cell membrane is the result of different
ionic concentrations that exist inside and outside the cell.
• There are two types of biopotentials are given below,
• ➢ Action Potential
• ➢ Resting Potential
Resting potentials
• The diffusion and drift processes give rise to membrane potential. The various ions
seek a balance between the inside and outside of the cell by diffusion and drift.
• But the membrane of excitable cells, such as nerve and muscle cells, readily
permits the entry of potassium and chloride ions while it effectively blocks the
entry of sodium ions.
• Due to difference in the permeability of different ions, the concentration of
sodium ions inside the cell becomes much lower than the outside the cell.
• Since the sodium ions are positive, the outside of the cell is more positive than the
outside.
• Thus balance is not achieved. However, an equilibrium is reached with a potential
difference across the membrane such that negative on the inside and positive on
the outside.
• This membrane potential caused by the different concentration of ions is called
resting potential of the cell.
Characteristics of resting
potential
• The value of resting potential is
maintained as a constant until
some kind of disturbance upsets
the equilibrium.
• It is strongly depending on
temperature.
• Since the permeability of
different cell types vary, the
corresponding resting potentials
vary as well. Thus it varies from -
60 to -100 mV.
Action potentials
• When a section of the cell membrane • Therefore the cell has a slightly
is excited by the flow of ionic current positive potential on the inside
or by some form of externally applied due to the imbalance of the
energy, the permeability of the potassium ions. This positive
membrane changes so that the sodium
ions are allowed to enter inside the potential of the cell membrane
cell. during excitation is called action
• This movement of sodium ions into the potential and is about 20 mV. As
cell constitutes an ionic current which long as the action potential
further reduces the barrier of the exists, the cell is said to be
membrane to sodium ions. The net depolarized.
result is an avalanche effect such that
sodium ions rush into the cell and try
to balance with the ions outside.
• Meanwhile potassium ions are leaving
the cell but are unable to move as
rapidly as the sodium ions.
Action potentials

• When the passage of sodium ions is • Waveform of the action

stopped, the ionic currents that lowered
the barrier to sodium ions are no longer
potential
present and the membrane reverts back to
the original (polarized) condition.
• By the action of the sodium pump, the
sodium ions are quickly transported to the
outside of the cell and the cell is in its
resting potential.
• Generally in nerve and muscle cells
repolarization occur so rapidly following
depolarization that the action potential
appears as a spike of as little as 1
millisecond total duration.
• But for heart muscle, the action potential is
withstanding from 150 to 300 milliseconds
and so it repolarizes much more slowly.
PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS

• When a cell is excited and generates an action potential, ionic

currents begin to flow. This process can, in turn, excite neighbouring
cells or adjacent areas of the same cell. The rate at which an action
potential moves down a fiber or is propagated from cell to cell is
called the propagation rate. In nerve fibers the propagation rate is
also called the nerve conduction rate, or conduction velocity.
• The usual velocity range in nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per
second (m/sec). Propagation through heart muscle is slower, with an
average rate from 0.2 to 0.4 m/sec. Special time-delay fibers between
the atria and ventricles of the heart cause action potentials to
propagate at an even slower rate, 0.03 to 0.05 m/sec.
ELECTRODE-ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE
 The most commonly used electrodes in patient monitoring and related studies are surface electrodes.
 In order to avoid movement artefacts and to obtain a clearly established contact (low contact impedance) an
electrolyte or electrode paste is usually employed as an interface between the electrode and the surface of
the source of the event.

Figure - Electrode-tissue interface for surface electrodes used with electrode jelly

 The characteristic of a surface electrode composed of a metal electrode and attached to the surface of the
body through an electrolyte (electrode jelly) are dependent upon the conditions at the metal-electrolyte
interface, the electrolyte-skin interface and the quality of the electrolyte.
 At the electrode-electrolyte transition, there is a tendency for each electrode to discharge ions into the
solution and for ions in the electrolyte to combine with each electrode.
ELECTRODE-ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE
 Electrode tissue interface circuit involves transfer of electrons
from the metal phase to an ionic carrier in the electrolyte, a
charge double layer (capacitance) forms at the interface.
 The net result is the creation of a charge gradient (difference
of potential) at each electrode, the spatial arrangement of
which is called the electrical double layer.
 The double layer is known to be present in the region
immediately adjacent to the electrode and can be represented,
in its simplest form, as two parallel sheets of charge of
opposite sign separated by a thin film of dielectric.
 Therefore, the electrode - electrolyte interface appears to
consist of a voltage source in series with a parallel
combination of a capacitance and reaction resistance. The
voltage developed is called the half-cell potential. Electrode tissue interface
ELECTRODE-ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE
 To a first-order approximation, the half-cell potential is equal to the electrode
potential of the electrode, if the electrodes were used in a chemical measuring
application.
 All electrode potentials are measured with respect to a reference electrode, usually
that of hydrogen absorbed on platinum black.
 Electrode potentials of some of the commonly used metals in the electrochemical
series with respect to Hydrogen. Charge distribution at electrode-
electrolyte interface
ELECTRODE-ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE
 The net current flows from electrode region to electrolyte in any measuring device like ECG, EEG, EMG
and EOG etc. The current crosses it from left to right. The electrode consists of metallic atoms C. The
electrolyte is an aqueous solution containing cations of the electrode metal C + and anions A - the current in
the electrode. The net current that cross the interface, passing from electrode to the electrolyte consist of
three process:
1. Electrons (e-) moving in a direction opposite to that of current in electrode
2. Cations (C+) moving in same direction as current.
3. Anions (A-) moving in a direction opposite to that of current in electrolyte.
 For charge to cross the interface there are no free electrons in the electrolyte and no free cations or anions in
the electrode-something must occur at the interface that transfers the charge between these carriers.
 What actually occur are chemical reactions at the interface, which can be represented in general by the
following reactions:
 ELECTRODE-SKIN INTERFACE
 When bio potentials are recorded from the surface of the skin, we must consider the additional
interface between the electrode-electrolyte and the skin.
 In coupling an electrode to the skin, we generally use transparent electrolyte gel containing
Cl- as the principal anion to maintain good contact.
 Alternatively, we may use an electrode cream, which contains Cl- and has the consistency of
hand lotion.
 The interface between this gel and the electrode is an electrode-electrolyte interface. However,
the interface between the electrolyte and the skin is different.
 The skin consists of three principal layers that surround the body to protect it from its
environment.
 The outermost layer, or epidermis, plays the most important role in the electrode-skin
interface.
 This layer, which consists of three sub layers, is constantly renewing itself.
 The electrode-electrolyte interface equivalent circuit is shown adjacent to the electrode-gel
interface.
 The series resistance Rs, is now the effective resistance associated with interface effects of the
gel between the electrode and the skin.
 ELECTRODE-SKIN INTERFACE
• The epidermis, or at least the stratum corneum, is a membrane that is semipermeable to ions, so if there is a difference in
ionic concentration across this membrane, there is a potential difference Ese, which is given by the Nernst equation. The
epidermal layer has an electric impedance that behaves as a parallel RC circuit.
• For 1 cm², skin impedance reduces from approximately 200 kn at 1 Hz to 200 2 at 1 MHz. The dermis and the
subcutaneous layer under it behave in general as pure resistances. They generate negligible de potentials. If the effect of the
stratum corneum can be reduced, a more stable electrode results.
• We minimize the effect of the stratum corneum by removing it, or at least a part of it, from under the electrode. There are
many ways to do this, ranging from vigorous rubbing with a pad soaked in acetone to abrading the stratum corneum with
sandpaper to puncture it. In all cases, this process tends to short out Ese, Ce, and Re, thereby improving the stability of the
signal, but the stratum corneum can regenerate in as short a time as 24 h.
• Galvanic skin reflex (GSR) is the contribution of the sweat glands and sweat ducts. The fluid secreted by sweat glands
contains Na+, K+, and Cl ions, the concentrations of which differ from those in the extracellular fluid. Thus, there is a
potential difference between the lumen of the sweat duct and the dermis and subcutaneous layers. There also is a parallel
RpCp combination in series with this potential that represents the wall of the sweat gland and duct, as shown by the broken
lines in Figure.
• These components are often neglected when we consider biopotential electrodes unless the electrodes are used to measure
the electrodermal response or GSR.
HALF-CELL POTENTIAL (OR) ELECTRODE POTENTIAL

 The voltage developed at an electrode electrolyte interface is designated as the 'Half- cell potential' or
'electrode potential'. In the case of a metal-solution interface, electrode potential results from the difference
in rates between two opposing processes:
1. the passage of ions from the metal into the solution and
2. the combination of metallic ions in solution with electrons in the metal to form atoms of the metal.
 So when a metal electrode comes into contact with an electrolyte (body fluid), there is a tendency for the
electrode to discharge ions into solution and for ions in the electrolyte to combine with the electrode.
 The net result is the creation of a charge gradient, the spatial arrangement of which is called the electrical
double layer. In practice, it is not a stable and its variations constitute a source of variable noise voltage,
called artifacts.

 The electrode-electrolyte interface resembles a voltage source having half-cell potential 'E' which is
developed due to charge gradient and a capacitor 'C in parallel with a leakage resistance 'R.
 The series resistance in the equivalent circuit 'R represents the series electrolyte and skin resistance under
equilibrium conditions.
HALF-CELL POTENTIAL

• Surface electrode equivalent circuit

Where,

Figure shows the electrical equivalent circuit of a surface Ehc - half-cell potential
electrode when it is in contact with the body surface.
 The value of the voltage and impedance depend on Cd- electrode capacitance leakage resistance
the electrode metal, its area, electrolyte, charge
density and frequency of current. Rd – leakage resistance
 The half-cell potential or electrode is measured with
Rs - series electrolyte and skin resistance
reference to hydrogen electrode placed in the
electrolyte near that metallic electrode.
CONTACT IMPEDANCE

 The bioelectrical events are usually recorded by means of metallic electrodes placed on the surface of the
body.
 The electrical activity generated by various muscles and nerves within the body is conducted to the
electrode sites through the body tissues, reaches the electrodes through the skin electrode transition and is
then conducted by direct wire connection to the input circuit of the recording machine.
 The impedance at the electrode-skin junction comes in the overall circuitry of the recording machine and,
therefore, has significant effect on the final record.
 Skin electrode impedance is known as the contact impedance and is of a value much greater than the
electrical impedance of the body tissue as measured beneath the skin.
 The outer horny layer of the skin is responsible for the bulk of the skin contact impedance and, therefore, a
careful skin preparation is essential in order to obtain best results.
 POLARIZATION EFFECTS OF ELECTRODE
 The half-cell potential of an electrode is no electric current
exists between the electrode and the electrolyte.
 If, on the other hand, there is a current, the observed half-cell
potential is often altered.
 The difference is due to polarization of the electrode.
 The difference between the observed half-cell potential and
the equilibrium zero-current half- cell potential is known as
the over potential.
 Three basic mechanisms contribute to this phenomenon, and
the over potential can be separated into three components: the
ohmic, the concentration, and the activation over
potentials.
POLARIZATION EFFECTS OF ELECTRODE
• Ohmic over potential: The ohmic over potential is a direct result of the resistance of the electrolyte. When a
current passes between two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, there is a voltage drop along the path of the
current in the electrolyte as a result of its resistance.

• Concentration over potential: The concentration over potential results from changes in the distribution of
ions in the electrolyte in the vicinity of the electrode-electrolyte interface.

• Activation over potential: The third mechanism of polarization results in the activation over potential. The
charge-transfer processes involved in the oxidation-reduction reaction are not entirely reversible.

These three mechanisms of polarization are additive. Thus the net over- potential of an electrode is given by
NON POLARIZABLE ELECTRODES AND POLARIZABLE
ELECTRODES
Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrode

 Electrodes in which no actual charge  Electrodes in which current passes

crosses the electrode-electrolyte freely across the electrode- electrolyte
interface, requiring no energy to make
interface when a current is applied.
the transition.
 The current across the interface is a
 These electrodes see no overpotentials.
displacement current and the
 Example: Ag/AgCl Electrode
electrode behaves like a capacitor.
 Example: Ag-AgCl is used in recording
 Overpotential is due concentration.
while Pt is used in stimulation
 Example: Platinum electrode
ELECTRODE

 Bio potential electrodes are those which help in picking up the electrical signals of the body.
 These electrical signals are a consequence of the chemical activity in the biological system.
 Chemical activity is due to ions and this chemical activity takes place at cellular level. Ions like Na+, Cl-
and K+ are predominantly present.
 The concentration gradient and its unbalanced condition inside and outside the cell lead to electrical activity,
which is picked up by bio potential electrodes.

TYPES OF ELECTRODES
1. Microelectrodes: Electrodes used to measure bioelectric potentials near or within a single cell.

2. Skin surface electrodes: Electrodes used to measure ECG, EEG, and EMG potentials from the surface of the
skin.

3. Needle electrodes: Electrodes used to penetrate the skin to record EEG potentials from a local region of the
brain or EMG potentials from a specific group of muscles.
MICROELECTRODES
 Microelectrodes are divided into metallic and non-metallic.
 Non-metallic microelectrode is called micro-pipet.
 The microelectrodes should have smaller diameter and during insertion of the electrode into cell, there will
not be any damage to the cells.
 When a microelectrode is used to measure the potential of the cell, it is located within the cell, while the
reference electrode is situated outside the cell.
 The size of the electrode is determined by the size of the cell.
 Since the size of the cells is about 50 microns, the diameter of the tip of the microelectrodes is ranging from
0.5 to 5 microns.

TYPES OF MICRO ELECTRODES

 Metal microelectrode
 Micropipette
METAL MICROELECTRODE

 Metal microelectrodes are formed by

electrolytically etching the tip of a fine tungsten or
stainless steel wire to a fine point.
 This technique is known as electro-pointing.
 The metal microelectrodes are coated almost to
the micro tip with an insulating material. To
reduce the impedance, some electrolytic
processing like chloriding the tip and then
developing by the photographic developer can be
performed.
  The non-metallic micropipet consists of a glass micropipet
MICROPIPETTE whose tip's diameter is about 1 micrometer and its filled
with a electrolyte usually 3 M KCL which is compatible
with the cellular fluids.
 A thin flexible metal wire from chlorided silver, stainless
steel or tungsten is inserted into the stem of the
micropipet.
 The friction between the wire and the stem of the
micropipet and the fluid surface tension hold the
micropipet on the wire.
 The other end of the metal wire is mounted to a rigid
support and the other free end of it in resting on the cell.
 SURFACE ELECTRODES TYPES
Generally larger area surface electrodes are used to sense ECG potentials Smaller area surface electrodes
are used to sense EEG and EMG potentials.
Metal Plate electrode: Rectangular (3.5 cm x 5 cm) and Suction cup electrode
circular (4.75 cm diameter) plates from German silver
nickel silver or nickel plated steel are used as surface • It is more practical and is well suited for attachment to
electrodes in the case of ECG measurement. When these flat surfaces of the body and to regions where the
electrodes are applied on the skin with electrode paste, underlying tissue is soft. Although physically large, this
typical DC resistance values are in the range from 2 to 10 electrode has a small area because only the rim is in
kilo ohms, the high frequency impedance amounts to a few contact with the skin.
hundreds ohms.
 SURFACE ELECTRODES TYPES
Adhesive tape electrode Multipoint electrode

• The pressure of the surface electrode against the skin • The multipoint electrode is a very practical electrode
may squeeze the electros paste out. To avoid this for ECG measurements and it contains nearly 1000
problem, adhesive tape electrode is used. It consists fine active contact points. By this a low resistance
of a light weigh metallic screen backed by a pad for contact is established with the subject. If the subject
electrode paste as shown in figure. The adhesive has hairs on the regions of interest, then one can use
backing holds the electrode in place and retards the the multipoint electrode without removing the hair. We
evaporation of the electrolyte present in the electrode can use it under any environmental conditions.
paste.
SURFACE ELECTRODES TYPES
Floating electrode

• In the floating electrode, the metal does not contact the subject
directly. That is the contact is made via an electrolytic bridge. By
means of this electrode, movement artifact is eliminated. This is
also called as liquid junction electrode.

• During the application of surface electrodes, we are getting

signals from a relatively large section of tissue. The activity we
see is the total product of millions of nerve or muscle cells
working as a team.

• If it becomes necessary to evaluate the activity of a small section

of tissue or of cells themselves, then the surface electrodes are not
useful. During long-term monitoring or exercise testing the
surface electrode is an important part of the system. The pH of the
electrode paste should be maintained at 7.0 during measurement
and buffered
NEEDLE ELECTRODES

 Used to record nerve action potential.

 Used to measure EEG and EMG Signals.
 A short length of the fine insulated metal wire is bent at its one end and the bent portion is inserted through the lumen
of the needle and is advanced into the muscle.
 When we insert two insulated wires into the lumen of the needle, then the two wires constitute bipolar electrode such
that one wire act as active electrode and another act as reference electrode.
 The main advantage of needle electrode is that they are less susceptible to movement errors than surface electrode

TYPES OF NEEDLE ELECTRODE

 Monopolar or Insulated Needle Electrode

 Bipolar Needle Electrode
 Concentric Or Coaxial Needle electrode
NEEDLE ELECTRODES TYPES
Monopolar or Insulated Needle Electrode

 Made of stainless steel, the monopolar needle electrode

has a very finely sharpened point and is covered with
Teflon or other insulating material over its entire length,
except for a 0.5 mm exposure at the tip.
 The needle serves as the active electrode, and a surface
electrode placed on the skin close to it serves as a
reference.

 The main advantage of monopolar needle electrodes is

small diameter and Teflon covering allows them to slide
in and out of the muscle easily.
 The major disadvantages of this needle are moving the
needle causes less discomfort. With repeated use, the size
of the bare tip changes
NEEDLE ELECTRODES TYPES
Bipolar Needle Electrode • Concentric Or Coaxial Needle electrode

• Bipolar needle electrodes contain two insulated wires  The concentric needle consists of a cannula with an
within a metal cannula. Two wires are bared at the tip insulated wire. The active electrode is the small tip of
and provide contacts to the patient. Bipolar electrodes the center wire, and the reference electrode is the
are electrically symmetrical and have no polarity sense. outside cannula.
 Concentric needles may have two central wires
(bipolar), in which case the active and reference
electrodes are at the tip and the outside cannula acts as
the ground.
RECORDING PROBLEMS

 Inaccessibility of variable to measurement: It is greatest difficulty in attempting from a living system is

the problem in gaining to the variable being measured. For example neuro chemical activity of brain, it is
impossible to place transducer so we need to do the indirect measurement. By using indirect measurement,
however one must be aware of the limitations.
 Variability of data: Majority of physiological variables are nondeterministic, means varies with respect to
time.so these must be represented by some statistical or probability distribution
 Lack of knowledge of interrelationship: physiological measurements with large tolerance are often
accepted by the physician because of lack of this knowledge and the resultant in ability to control variations.
Better understanding of physiological relationship would also permit more effective use of indirect
measurements as substitutes for inaccessible measure.
RECORDING PROBLEMS
 Sensor or Sensing Element: This part is responsible for generating measurable response with respect to the
change in physical quantity to be measured.
 Transduction Element: Sensor output is carried on to the transduction element which converts the non-
electrical signal to electrical signal in proportion to the input
 Artifacts: it is component or variable is observed while doing experiment, which is not naturally present.
Thus random noise generated within the measuring instrument, electrical interference (50/60 Hz), cross talk
and all other unwanted variations in a signal are considered artifacts.
 Energy limitations: Many physiological measurement techniques that a certain amount of energy be
applied to the living system in order to obtain a measurement. For example, resistance measurements require
the flow of electric current through the tissue or blood being measured. Some transducers generate small
amount of heat due to the current flow.
 Safety considerations: Methods employed in measuring variables in a living human subject must in no way
endanger the life or normal functioning of the subject. Recent emphasis on hospital safety requires that extra
caution must be taken in the design of any measurement system to protect the patient.
MOTION ARTIFACTS
 When a polarizable electrode is in contact with an electrolyte, a double layer of charge forms at the interface.
 If the electrode is moved with respect to the electrolyte, this movement mechanically disturbs the distribution of
charge at the interface and results in a momentary change of the half-cell potential until equilibrium can be
reestablished.
 If a pair of electrodes is in an electrolyte and one move while the other remains stationary, a potential difference
appears between the two electrodes during this movement.
 This potential is known as motion artifact and can be serious cause of interference in the measurement of
biopotentials.
 Because motion artifact results primarily from mechanical disturbances of the distribution of charge at the
electrode-electrolyte interface, it is reasonable to expect that motion artifact is minimal for nonpolarizable
electrode.
 Observation of the motion-artifact signals reveals that a major component of this noise is at low frequencies show
that different biopotential signals occupy different portions of the frequency spectrum.
 Low-frequency artifact does not affect signals such as the EMG or axon action potential (AAP) nearly so much as
it does the ECG, EEG, and electrooculogram (EOG).
MOTION ARTIFACTS
 In the former case, filtering can be effectively used to minimize the contribution of motion artifact on the
overall signal.
 But in the latter case, such filtering also distorts the signal. It is important in these applications to use a non-
polarizable electrode to minimize motion artifact stemming from the electrode-electrolyte interface.
 This interface is not the only source of motion artifact encountered when biopotential electrodes are applied
to the skin.
 The equivalent circuit in electrode-skin interface, in addition to the half-cell potential E, the electrolyte gel-
skin potential Ehc can also cause motion artifact, if it varies with movement of the electrode.
 Variations in this potential represent a major source of motion artifact in Ag/AgCl skin electrodes.
 Motion artifact can be significantly reduced when the stratum corneum is removed by mechanical abrasion
with a fine abrasive paper. This method also helps to reduce the epidermal component of the skin
impedance. They also point out that removal of the body's outer protective barrier makes that region of skin
more susceptible to irritation from the electrolyte gel. Therefore, the choice of a gel material is important.
 MEASUREMENTS WITH TWO ELECTRODES
Measurement of the bioelectric potentials requires two electrodes. The voltage measured is really the difference
between the instantaneous potential of the two electrodes.
If two electrodes are of same type

The difference is usually small and depends essentially on the actual difference of ionic potential between the
two points of the body from which measurements are being taken.

If two electrodes are of different type

They produce a significant dc voltage that can cause current to flow through both electrodes as well as through
the input circuit of the amplifier to which they are connected. The DC voltage due to the difference in electrode
potential is called offset voltage of electrode the two Electrodes of same material may also produce small
electrode offset voltage. Chemical activity takes place within an electrode can cause voltage fluctuations to
appear without any physiological input. Such Variations may appear as noise on bioelectric signal. It may
reduce by proper choice of materials or by coating the electrodes to improve stability, the best material for this
is Silver-silver chloride.
MEASUREMENTS WITH TWO ELECTRODES
Equivalent circuit for a pair of electrode

 The electrical equivalent circuit suggests that the voltage presented to the
measuring instrument from the electrode consists of two main components. One
is the contact potential and the other is the biological signal of interest.
 The contact potential depends upon several factors and may produce an
interference signal which exceeds several times the useful signal. The contact
potential is found to be a function of the type of skin, skin preparation and
composition of the electrolyte.
 When bioelectric events are recorded, interference signals are produced by the
potential differences of metal-electrolyte and the electrolyte-skin interface.
 Normally, these potential differences are connected in opposition during the
recording procedure, and in the case of a truly reversible and uniform electrode
pair, their difference would be nil.
MEASUREMENTS WITH TWO
ELECTRODES
 However, in practice, and represent the half-cell potentials (E1 and E2) of the electrodes.
 Z1 and Z2 are the skin contact impedances of these electrodes and R is the tissue resistance or resistance of
the bioelectric generator.

 This circuit shows that the impedance of the electrodes would be high in the low frequency region and it
would decrease with increasing frequency.
 It is further clear that in the measurement of a bioelectric signal, it is essential to minimize potential drops
across the electrode impedance.
 This is achieved by making the skin-contact impedance as low as possible and making the input impedance
of the measuring device as high as possible.