PROFESSIONAL
Facilitating
EDUCATION:
Learning
SHIRLEY T.
EQUIPADO
FACILITATING LEARNING
COMPETENCIES
1. Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive,
motivational, socio-cultural factors that affect
learning
2. Apply theories of learning and development to
the teaching-learning process
3. 3. Draw educational implications of research
findings related to child and adolescent
learning and development along with the
biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and
psychological dimensions.
4. 4. Organize a learning environment that is
responsive to learner’s needs and that
promotes fairness among learners of various
cultures, family background and gender
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Teaching – giving/transferring
Learning – acquiring/accepting
EDUCATIVE PROCESS
Learner – given focus
Teacher – prime mover
Learning Environment –
headway
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LEARNER CENTERED
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Cognitive
and
Metacognit
ive
(6
Principles)
Motivation
Developmen al and
t and Social
Factors
14 Affective
Factors
(2
Principles)
LPI (2
Principles)
Individual
Differences
(3
Principles)
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Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles (LPI)
• The LPI were put together by the
American Psychological Association.
• They focus on psychological factors
that are primarily internal to and
under the control of the learner
rather than conditioned habits or
physiological factors.
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Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles (LPI)
• The principles also attempt to
acknowledge external
environment or contextual
factors that interact with these
internal factors.
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Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles (LPI)
• The principles are intended to
deal holistically with learners in
the context of real-world learning
situations.
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Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles (LPI)
The 14 principles are divided into
those referring to:
1)cognitive and meta-cognitive,
2)motivational and affective,
3)developmental and social, and
4)individual difference factors
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Cognitive and Meta-cognitive
Factors
1. Nature of the learning process -
learning of complex subject matter
is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing
meaning from information and
experience.
2. Goals of the learning process- can
create meaningful, coherent
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Cognitive and Meta-cognitive
Factors
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link
new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.
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Cognitive and Meta-cognitive
Factors
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can
create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies
to achieve complex learning
goals.
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Cognitive and Meta-cognitive
Factors
5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for
selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and
critical tninking.
6. Context of learning Learning is
influenced by environmental
factors
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Motivational and Affective
Factors
7. Motivational and emotional
influences on Learning - What
and how much is learned is
influenced by the learners’
motivation.
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Motivational and Affective
Factors
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learners creativity, higher
order thinking, and natural curiosity
(w/in yourself) stimulated by tasks of
optimal novelty
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Motivational and Affective
Factors
9. Effects of motivation and effort
–
Acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills requires extended
learner effort and guided practice.
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Development and Social
Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains
is taken into account.
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Development and Social
Factors
* appropriateness of material
* intellectual, social, emotional,
and physical domains
* macro skills – interest and level
of the student
* prior or past experiences – from
school, home, culture, and
community factors.
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Development and Social
Factors
11. Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by
social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with
others.
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Individual Differences
Factors
12. Individual differences in
learning
Learners different strategies,
approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of
prior experience and heredity.
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Individual Differences
Factors
13. Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when
differences in learners linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds
are taken into account.
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Individual Differences
Factors
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as
learning progress including
diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment are integral parts of
the learning process.
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Summary of the 14 Principles
(Alexander & Murphy )
1. The knowledge base
2. Strategic processing and
control
3. Motivation and affective
4. Development and Individual
differences
5. Situation or context
PROFESSIONAL
Theories
EDUCATION: of
Learning
SHIRLEY T.
EQUIPADO
FACILITATING LEARNING
Behaviorism
Learne Learner’s involvement is basically
r passive
1. Learning happens when a correct
response is demonstrated following
Key the presentation of a specific
Principle environmental stimulus
s
2. Emphasis is on observable and
measurable behaviors
Indicated Teacher designs the learning
Design environment
1. Integrating complex muscular and
cognitive activities
Assets
2. Sequenced knowledge presented in
small, logical and limited steps
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Behaviorism
1. Communicate or transfer behaviors
representing knowledge and skills
to the learner who does not
consider mental processing.
2. Instruction is to elicit the desired
response from the learner who is
presented with a target stimulus
Goals 3. Learner must know how to execute
the proper response as well as the
conditions under which the
response is made
4. Instruction utilizes consequences
and reinforcement of learned
behaviors
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Pavlov’s Dog
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Pavlov’s Dog
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CONNECTIONISM
Edward Lee Thorndike
• formulated by Edward Lee Thorndike. It
assumes that human activities are based on
the association or connection between
stimulus and response.
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CONNECTIONISM
Edward Lee Thorndike
• It is the belief that all human mental processes
consist of the functioning of native and
acquired connections between the situations
and response. It includes the three
fundamental laws:
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CONNECTIONISM
Edward Lee Thorndike
• Law of Readiness – when an individual is
prepared to respond or act, allowing him to do so
is satisfying, preventing him would be annoying.
• Law of Exercise – constant repetition of a
response strengthens its connection with the
stimulus, while disuse of a response weakens it.
• Law of Effect – learning is strengthened if it
results in satisfaction, but it is weakened if it
leads to vexation or annoyance.
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
B. F. Skinner
• Skinner discovered important
principles of operant conditioning, a
type of learning that involves
rewards and punishments.
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
B. F. Skinner
• Skinner designed an
apparatus, called a
Skinner box, that allowed
him to formulate
important principles of
animal learning.
• An animal placed inside
the box is rewarded with
a small bit of food each
time it makes the desired
response, such as
pressing a lever or
pecking a key.
• A device outside the box
records the animal's
responses
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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Albert Bandura
In the early 1960s, Albert Bandura
began a series of writings that
challenged the older explanations of
imitative learning and expand the
topic into what is now referred to as
Observational Learning.
Observation learning may or may not
involve imitation.
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Modeling has five effects on
learners:
Acquisition - New responses are learned by
observing the model.
Inhibition - A response that otherwise may be
made is changed when the observer sees a
model being punished.
Disinhibition - A reduction in fear by observing
a model's behavior go unpunished in a feared
activity.
Facilitation - A model elicits from an observer
a response that has already been learned.
Creativity - Observing several models performing and
then adapting a combination of characteristics or styles.
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Purposive Behaviorism
Edward Chase Tolman
• AKA “ Sign Learning Theory ”
• Learning is a cognitive process
• Learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior
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“ The stimuli which are allowed in
are not connected by just simple
one-to-one switches to the outgoing
responses. Rather the incoming
impulses are usually worked over
and elaborated in the central control
room into a tentative cognitive like
map of the environment.”
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• A new stimulus ( the sign)
becomes associated with already
meaningful stimuli (the
significant) through a series of
pairings; there was no need for
reinforcement in order to
establish learning.
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Tolman’s Key Concepts
Learning is always purposive and
goal – directed
• Individuals do more than merely
respond to stimuli; they act on
beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions, and they strive
towards goal.
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Tolman’s Key Concepts
Cognitive Maps
• Famous experiment on rats
concluded that Organism or
Individual to be exact learned
the location and will select the
shortest or easiest path to
achieve goal.
• Ex. Going to school everyday.
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Tolman’s Key Concepts
Latent Learning
• Learning that remains or stays
with the individual until needed.
• Learning that is outwardly
manifested at once.
Ex. A 2 yr. old handling remote for the first
time.
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Tolman’s Key Concepts
The Concept of Intervening Variable
• Variables that are not readily seen but
serves as determinants of behavior.
• Learning is mediated or influenced by
expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and other
internal or environmental variables.
Ex. Experiment on Rats - Hunger
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Tolman’s Key Concepts
Reinforcement Not Essential
for Learning
• Reinforcement is not essential
for learning, although it provides
an incentive for performance.
Ex. Rats acquired knowledge of the way
through maze in the absence of
reinforcement.
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COGNITIVISM
View of Learner is viewed as an active
learner participant in the learning process; he
processes, stores and retrieves
information for use
1. Learning is a change of knowledge
state
2. Knowledge acquisition is described
as a mental activity that entails
internal coding and structuring by
Key the learner.
Principles 3. Emphasis is on the building blocks of
knowledge (e.g. identifying
prerequisite relationships of content)
4. Emphasis on structuring, organizing
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HIERARCHICAL LEARNING
Robert Gagne
• Learning causes observable
change
• Skills need to be taught one at a
time
• Each new skill should build on
previous ones
• Learning is hierarchical in nature.
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Nine Events of Instruction
Behavioral Operations
1.gain attention
2. tell learners the learning
objective
3. stimulate recall
4. present the stimulus,
content
5. provide guidance,
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Nine Events of Instruction
Behavioral and Cognitive
Operations
6. elicit the learning by
demonstrating it back
7. provide feedback on
performance
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Nine Events of Instruction
Cognitive Operations
8. assess performance, give
feedback and reinforcement
9. enhance retention and
transfer to other contexts
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Gagne also distinguished eight different
classes of situations in which human
beings learn:
1.Signal Learning - The individual learns to
make a general, diffuse response to a
signal. Such was the classical conditioned
response of Pavlov.
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2.Stimulus-Response Learning -
The learner acquires a precise
response to a discriminated
stimulus.
3.Chaining - A chain of two or
more stimulus-response
connections is acquired.
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4. Verbal Association - The learning of
chains that are verbal.
5. Discrimination Learning - The
individual learns to make different
identifying responses to many different
stimuli which may resemble each other
in physical appearance.
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6. Concept Learning - The learner acquires a
capability of making a common response to a
class of stimuli.
7. Rule Learning - A rule is a chain of two or more
concepts.
8. Problem Solving - This is the highest level of cognitive
process according to Gagné. It involves developing the ability
to invent a complex rule, algorithm or procedure for the
purpose of solving one particular problem, and then using the
method to solve other problems of a similar nature.-
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Cognitive Field Theory
The insights of a
person are not
equated with his
Insight Learning –
consciousness or
chimpanzee
awareness of his
experimentation.
Wolfgang ability to describe
Can be brought
Kohler them verbally;
by intuition
their essence is a
(Spinoza’s highest
sense of, or
knowledge)
feeling for a
pattern in a life
situation.
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Cognitive Field Theory
Vector (a quantity
that has magnitude Individuals exist on a
and direction) and
field of forces within
Topological
(concerned with the his environment that
properties of move, change and
geometric give him a degree of
configuration which stability and
are unaltered by
substance or define
Kurt Lewin elastic
deformations)Theory his behavior. The
behavior of an
B = f(p,e) individual is a result of
B – behavior forces operating
f- function
simultaneously within
p – person
e – total his environment and
environment life space.
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Cognitive Field Theory
Gestalt Learning – The whole is more than its sum
gestalt –a German of its parts and the whole gets
term which means a its meaning from its parts.
structure, Gestalt view learning as a
configuration or change in knowledge, skills,
pattern of physical, attitudes, values or beliefs and
biological or may or may not have anything
psychological to do with the change in overt
phenomena so behavior. One does not learn
integrated as it by doing; for learning to occur,
constitute a functional doing must be accompanied by
unit with properties not realization of consequences.
derivable by Learning occurs as a result of
summation of its parts. or through experiences.
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Phenomenology LEARNING
• Study oh how people organize learning by
looking at their lived experiences. Learning
happens best when the instruction is related
to their real life experiences. The human brain
has the ability of to make a map of the stimuli
caused by these life experiences. This process
of mapping is called isomorphism.
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Law of Closure LEARNING
• Whenever the brain sees only part of the
picture, the brain automatically attempts to
create a complete picture. Applies to images,
thoughts, feelings and sound.
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Law of Proximity
LEARNING
• The human brain maps elements that are
presented close to each other as a whole
rather instead of separate parts.
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LEARNING
Law of Similarity
• Learning is facilitated when groups that are
alike are linked together and contrasted with
groups that present differing ideas.
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Figure and GroundLEARNING
• When observing things around us, it is normal
for the eye to ignore space or holes and to
see, instead whole objects.
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Trace Theory LEARNING
• As new thoughts and ideas are learned, the
brain tends to make connections or traces,
that are representative of the links that occur
between conceptions and ideas, as well as
images.
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Meaningful Reception
Theory
David Ausubel
An individual learns by relating
newly acquired information to
what she already knows.
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Meaningful Reception
Theory
David Ausubel
He defined meaningful learning
as the acquisition of new
meaning.
• It implies that the material to
be learned is potentially
meaningful;
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Meaningful Reception
Theory
David Ausubel
• the acquisition of new
meaning refers to the process
by which students turn
potentially meaningful
material into actual
meaningfulness
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Meaningful Reception
Theory
David Ausubel
The most important idea for
teachers is the use of
“advance organizers” - a term
for an abstract, general
overview of new information
before actual learning is
experienced
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Meaningful Reception
Theory
David Ausubel
The most important idea for
teachers is the use of
“advance organizers” - a term
for an abstract, general
overview of new information
before actual learning is
experienced
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Meaningful Reception
Theory
within a classroom setting
Advance Organizers – Teachers
should incorporate advance
organizers when teaching a
new concept.
Ex. Teachers should use a number of examples and
focus on both similarities and differences.
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The most important single
factor in learning is what the
learner already knows..
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Jerome Bruner
Main Concepts
• Three Ways to represent
knowledge
• Spiral Curriculum
• Principles of Instruction
• Discovery Learning
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Three Ways to Represent
Knowledge
• Enactive Representation
At the earliest ages, children learn
about the world through actions on
physical objects and the outcomes
of these actions.
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Three Ways to Represent
Knowledge
• Iconic Representation
This second stage is when learning
can be obtained through using
Cond stage
models and pictures.
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Three Ways to Represent
Knowledge
• Symbolic Representation
In this third stage, the learner has
developed the ability to think in
abstract terms.
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Spiral Curriculum
Teachers must revisit the curriculum
by teaching the same content in
different ways depending on
students’ developmental level
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DISCOVERY LEARNING
Jerome Bruner
• Learning is a cognitive process,
with 3 simultaneous processes:
Acquisition – process of obtaining
new information that can either
replace or refine something
previously known
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DISCOVERY LEARNING
Jerome Bruner
Transformation – manipulation of
information to fit new situations
Evaluation – checking whether or
not the learned material has been
manipulated appropriately
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CONSTRUCTIVISM
Indicated Instructor provides peer interaction and builds
Design on known concepts
Asset Learning is interactive using dialogue
1. Build personal interpretations of the world based
on individual experiences and interactions
(constantly open to change, cannot achieve a
predetermined, "correct" meaning, knowledge
emerges in relevant contexts)
2. Learning is an active process of constructing rather
Goals of than acquiring knowledge
Instruction 3. Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge
construction rather than communicating
knowledge
4. Do not structure learning for the task, but engage
learner in the actual use of the tools in real world
situations
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Proponent- Piaget
Learning is holistic.
A child constructs understanding
through many channels: reading,
listening, exploring, and experiencing
his or her environment.
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A Piagetian-inspired curricula
emphasizes a child-centered
educational philosophy. His work
has been labeled an
interactionist as well as a
constructivist.
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• Cognitive growth as an extension
of biological growth and as
governed by the same laws and
principles.
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• Intellectual development controls
every other aspect of
development - emotional, social,
and moral.
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Three Basic Instructional
Principles
Principle 1: The learning
environment should support
the activity of the child (i.e.,
an active, discovery-oriented
environment).
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Three Basic Instructional
Principles
Principle 2: Children’s
interactions with their peers
are an important source of
cognitive development (i.e.,
peer teaching and social
negotiation).
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Three Basic Instructional
Principles
Principle 3: Adopt instructional
strategies that make children
aware of conflicts and
inconsistencies in their
thinking (i.e., conflict teaching
and Socratic dialog).
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Proponent – John Dewey
• Learning should be practical.
Teachers should strive to show
how abstract concepts can work
in everyday life.
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Proponent – John Dewey
.
• He emphasized hands-on
learning and opposed
authoritarian methods in
teaching.
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Proponent – John Dewey
• Considered to be the leading
progressive educator of this
century, he wrote on the great
issues in education.
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Three Basic Instructional
Principles
• First, education must engage with
and enlarge experience has
continued to be a significant
component in informal education
practice
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Three Basic Instructional
Principles
• Second, exploration of thinking and
reflection - and the associated role of
educators
• Third, educational methods must not
simply amuse or entertain or be
overly vocational.
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Proponent - Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist
and philosopher in the 1930's, is
most often associated with the social
constructivist theory.
He emphasizes the influences of
cultural and social contexts in
learning and supports a discovery
model of learning.
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Proponent - Vygotsky
This type of model places the
teacher in an active role while
the students' mental abilities
develop naturally through
various paths of discovery.
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Zone of Proximal Development
• ZPD is the area between what a
learner can do individually and
what he can do when assisted by
peer interaction, research and
teaching.
• Focuses on interactive problem-
solving
Able to do on own ZPD Able to do with help
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MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Howard Gardner
• Linguistic – word smart
• Logical-mathematical –
number/reasoning smart
• Spatial – picture smart
• Bodily-Kinesthetic – Body smart
• Musical – music smart
• Interpersonal – people smart
• Intrapersonal – self smart
• Naturalist – nature smart
• Existential – why smart
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MOTIVATION
• The stimulation of action toward
a particular objective where
previously there was little or no
attraction toward that goal.
• It is the process of arousing,
maintaining and controlling
interest.
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MOTIVATION
TYPES:
• Intrinsic – inherent or internal
stimulus of the individual to learn.
• Extrinsic – based on incentives which
are artificial devices which are
employed to evoke attitude
conducive to learning.
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ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS
• Physiological needs- hunger, thirst, breathing
• Safety and security needs – protection from
injury, pain, extremes of heat and cold
• Belonging and affection needs – giving and
receiving of love, warmth and affection
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ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS
• Esteem and self-respect needs – feeling
adequate, competent, being appreciated
• Self-actualization needs – self-fulfillment by
using one’s talents and potentials.
