TOPIC : PROPAGATION OF ERROR

PRESENTED BY : SHARQA KHALID

PRESENTED TO : SIR ZIA-UL-HAQ KHAN

Learning Outcomes:
• Introduction
• What is propagation of error
• Rules for propagation of error
INTRODUCTION :
• Every measurement has an air of uncertainty about it
• Not all the uncertainties are equal
• Ability to properly combine uncertainties from different
measurements is crucial
• Uncertainty in measurement comes about in different ways ;
• Instrument variability, different observers, sample
differences, time of day, etc.
DEFINITION:

• Propagation of Error (or Propagation of

Uncertainty) is defined as the effects on a
function by a variable's uncertainty. It is a
calculus derived statistical calculation
designed to combine uncertainties from
multiple variables to provide an accurate
measurement of uncertainty.
Propagation of Error
• When doing experiments, we often measure two or more distinct physical
quantities and then combine the measurements mathematically to obtain
some final result.
• For example, to determine the average speed of an object we could
measure the amount of time it takes to travel a certain distance and then
use
average speed =distance traveled / elapsed time
• The uncertainty in the calculated average speed depends upon the
uncertainty in the distance as well as the uncertainty in the time.
• Propagation of error refers to the methods used to determine how the
uncertainty in a calculated result is related to the uncertainties in the
individual measurements.
• The methods used for determining how uncertainties are combined can be
quite sophisticated
THE MIN-MAX METHOD:
The basic method we will use to propagate errors is called
the min- max method. To use this method
we define
• a minimum and maximum value for each of the
measurements used to calculate the final result.
• The minimum and maximum values are simply (best value -
uncertainty) and (best value + uncertainty).
• Then we use these values to calculate a minimum and
maximum value for the calculated result.
• From the minimum and maximum values for the calculated
result, we deduce the uncertainty in the result.
 Examples are:
1) Addition of measurements
• When two resistors are connected in series, the total resistance is the
sum of the individual resistances.
• Suppose that two resistors in series have resistances of 78 ± 1 ohms and
135 ± 2 ohms.
• The best estimate of the total resistance is 78 + 135 = 213 ohms. Based
on the uncertainty, it is quite likely that the resistance of the first resistor
is between 77 and 79 ohms and the resistance of the second resistor is
between 133 and 137 ohms.
• These are our minimum and maximum values. Using the maximum values
for each resistor we get a maximum total resistance of 79 + 137 = 216
ohms.
CONT.....

• Similarly, the minimum total resistance is 77 + 133 =

210 ohms. The difference between the maximum
resistance and the minimum resistance is 6 ohms so
the total resistance with uncertainty is 213 ± 3 ohms.
• In this case the total uncertainty is just the sum of the
two uncertainties
2). Subtraction of measurements
• The mass of an empty thermos bottle is found to be 78.3 g ±
0.2 g.
• When filled with liquid nitrogen its mass is 167.7± 0.3 g. The
best estimate for the mass of liquid nitrogen in the flask is
167.7 - 78.3 = 89.4 g.
• The minimum and maximum values for the mass of the
thermos bottle are 78.1 g and 78.5 g.
• The minimum and maximum values for the mass of the
thermos bottle plus nitrogen are 167.4 g and 168.0 g.
• To find the maximum mass for the liquid nitrogen we subtract
the minimum mass of the thermos bottle, 78.1 g, from the
maximum mass of the thermos +liquid nitrogen, 168.0 g.
CONT .....
• The result is that the maximum value for the mass of
liquid nitrogen is 168.0 g - 78.1 g =89.9 g.
• To find the minimum mass of the liquid nitrogen we
subtract the maximum mass of the thermos, 78.5 g,
from the minimum mass of the thermos + nitrogen,
167.4g.
• The result is 167.4 g - 78.5 g = 88.9 g.
• Thus the mass of the liquid nitrogen is 89.4 ± 0.5 g.
Note that the masses are subtracted, but the
uncertainties add
3) Multiplication by a constant
• The time for a pendulum to complete 5 swings is found to be t = 12.6 ± 0.2s.
• The time for 1 swing, T, is given by T = (1/5)t.
• The best estimate for T is (1/5) x 12.6 = 2.52 s.
• The maximum time for one swing is (1/5) x 12.8 =2.56 s and the minimum
time is (1/5) x 12.4 s = 2.48 s.
• Thus the time for one swing is T = 2.52 ± 0.04 s.
• Note that the uncertainty is 1/5 of the uncertainty in the original
measurement.
4) Multiplication of measurements :
• A rectangular plot of land is found to be 163 ± 1 ft by 386 ±2 ft.
• The best estimate for the area of the plot is 163 ft x 386 ft = 62918 ft 2 .
• The maximum area is 164 ft x 388 ft = 63632 ft 2 .
• The minimum area is162 ft x 384 ft = 62208 ft 2 .
• The maximum area is larger than the best estimate of the area by 714 ft 2 .
• The minimum area is smaller than the best estimate by 710 ft 2 .
• Taking the average we have that the area is 62918 ± 712 ft 2 .
• We recall that uncertainties are normally quoted to only one or two signific
figures, and the precision of the result should match that of the uncertainty
CONT.....

• Thus the uncertainty is 700 ft 2 , and the result is

62900 ± 700 ft 2 .
• It is worth noting that if we were using rules for
significant figures to decide how to round off the
answer, we would give the answer to 3 significant
figures, namely 62900 ft 2 .
• With our analysis we not only find out how to round
off the final result, but we also get information about
the actual size of the uncertainty
5) Division of measurements :
• A sprinter runs 400 ± 2 m in 65.31 ± 0.05 s.
• Her average speed is 400m/65.31s = 6.12464 m/s.
• To find the maximum value for her speed we take the maximum
distance and the minimum time (similar to what we did with
subtraction above) and get a speed of 402m/65.26s = 6.15998 m/s.
• The minimum value for her speed is 398m/65.36s = 6.08935 m/s.
• The maximum and minimum are both different from the best value by
about 0.035 m/s.
• Rounding to 1 sig fig we get that the uncertainty is 0.03s.
• Rounding the best estimate properly we have an average speed of
6) Raising to a power and multiplying by a
constant:
• The radius of a circle is found to be 7.5 ± 0.1 cm.
• The best estimate for the area of the circle (A = πR2 ) is A = 3.1416 x
7.52 = 176.715 cm2 .
• The maximum area is 3.1416 x 7.62 = 181.459 cm2 and the minimum
area is 3.1416 x 7.42 = 172.034 cm2 .
• The difference between the maximum value and the best estimate is
4.744 cm2 and the difference between the minimum and the best
estimate is 4.681 cm2 .
• Thus the uncertainty is about 4.7 cm2 , or to 1 significant figure, 5 cm2 .
• The final result for the area is A = 177 ± 5 cm2 .
RULES FOR PROPAGATING UNCERTAINTIES:
• The above examples illustrate how the min-max method may be applied in a number of
specific cases.
• We can also apply the method more generally and develop some simple rules for
propagating errors.

Rule #1:
When two measurements are added or subtracted, the absolute uncertainty in the result is
the sum of the absolute uncertainties of the individual measurements.

Rule #2:
When a measurement is multiplied by a constant, the absolute uncertainty in the result is
equal to the absolute uncertainty in the measurement times the constant, and the relative
uncertainty in the result is the same as the relative uncertainty in the measurement.
CONT.....
Rule #3: When two measurements are multiplied or
divided, the relative uncertainty in the result is the sum of the
relative uncertainties in the individual measurements. This rule
could be stated equivalently in terms of percentage
uncertainties, since relative and percentage uncertainties are
simply related by a factor of 100.
Rule #4 When a measurement is raised to a power, including
fractional powers such as in the case of a square root, the
relative uncertainty in the result is the relative uncertainty in the
measurement times the power.