Introduction to Research
Methods / Project
Management
BY
D R . A B D U L KA R I M
OLOYEDE
Outline
Definition of Research
Importance of Research
Research Process and Research
Methodology
Project Management
What is Research
Research is a logical and systematic search for
New and useful information on a particular topic.
Twinkle Twinkle Little star
How I wonder what you are
How and what Summarises what research is.
It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery
of hidden truths.
It should lead to new contribution to existing
Knowledge
The result of scientific research very often
force a change in view or solve a problem.
What is Research (Cont.)
Research can be in any field.
Whatever the subject: Research has to be an
active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in
order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events,
behaviors and theories.
Research enhances the quality of human life.
Research goes hand in hand with Development.
Hence sometimes called: Research and
development.
Importance of Research
Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific
fields. In our life, new problems, events, phenomena and
processes occur every day. Practically, implementable
solutions and suggestions are required for tackling new
problems that arise.
Scientists have to undertake research on them and find
their causes, solutions, explanations and applications.
Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and
natural phenomena.
What does Research Involves
Expanding the boundaries of our current
knowledge
Investigate a problem concern or question
Discovering the truth through application of
scientific technique.
Collecting data in a strictly controlled
situation for the purpose of prediction or
explanation
Carrying out a research project though
building of prototypes or computer modelling.
How is Research Done?
Research is done with the help of study,
experiment, observation, projects, analysis, Date
collection, comparison and reasoning. Research
is in fact ubiquitous.
For example: Line of Sight is not always a
requirement in wireless communication: We
became aware of this fact only through Research.
How is Research Done (cont.)
After problem is formulated: Existing Literatures are
then consulted ( You cant reinvent the wheel)
Conduct your own study
Identify and define key concepts
Collect data or carry out project
Validate the study
Draw appropriate conclusion
Write a Research Report
Literature Review
Literature review helps us
sharpen the problem, reformulate it or even
leads to defining other closely related
problems,
get proper understanding of the problem
chosen,
acquire proper theoretical and practical
knowledge to investigate the problem,
show how the problem under study relates to
the previous research studies and
know whether the proposed problem had
already been solved.
Literature Review (Cont.)
Through survey one can collect relevant information about
the problem. Clarity of ideas can be acquired through study
of literature. Apart from literature directly connected with
the problem, the literature that is connected with similar
problems is also useful.
- It helps formulate the problem in a clear-cut way. A
review on past work helps us know the outcome of those
investigations where similar problems were solved. It can
help us design methodology for the present work. We can
also explore the vital links with the various trends and
phases in the chosen topic and familiarize with
characteristic precepts, concepts and interpretations.
Further, it can help us formulate a satisfactory structure of
the research proposal.
Why do we do Research?
to get a (research) degree (Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like
better employment, promotion, etc.
to get joy of doing some creative work
to acquire respectability
to get recognition
curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an
event
curiosity to find new things
to serve the society by solving social problems
Research Methods and Research Methodology
Is there any difference between research methods and research
methodology?
Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and
algorithms used in research. All the methods used by a researcher
during a research study are termed as research methods. They are
essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They include theoretical
procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical
approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and
find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call
for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and
observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those
explanations which can be verified by experiments.
Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a
science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the
procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing,
explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology.
It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained.
Its aim is to give the work plan of research.
Types of Research
There are various types of research however I
would be discussing:
Basic and Applied Research
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Applied Research
In an applied research one solves certain problems
employing well known and accepted theories and principles.
Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-
disciplinary research are essentially applied research.
Applied research is helpful for basic research.
A research, the outcome of which has immediate application
is also termed as applied research.
Such a research is of practical use to current activity.
For example, research on social problems have immediate
use. Applied research is concerned with actual life research
such as research on increasing efficiency of a machine,
increasing gain factor of production of a material, pollution
control, preparing vaccination for a disease, etc. Obviously,
they have immediate potential applications.
Basic Research
Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons
for occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon.
It is also called theoretical research.
It is the Study or investigation of some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure science are termed as basic research.
Basic researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or
application.
It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate
interest. But it is original or basic in character.
It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and
facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and
conclusion on it.
It helps build new frontiers of knowledge.
The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied
research. Researchers working on applied research have to make
use of the outcomes of basic research and explore the utility of them
Differences between Basic and Applied Researches
Seeks generalization Studies individual or
specific cases without
the objective to generalize
Aims at basic processes Aims at any variable which
makes the
desired difference
Tries to get all the facts Tries to correct facts that are
problematic
Aims at basic processes Tries to say how things can be
changed
Aims at basic processes Reports in common language
Objective/Purpose • To gain an understanding of • To quantify data and generalize
underlying reasons and results from a sample to the
motivations population of interest
• To provide insights into the • To measure the incidence of
setting of a problem, generating various views and opinions in a
ideas and/or hypotheses for chosen sample
later quantitative research • Sometimes followed by
• To uncover prevalent trends in qualitative research which is
thought and opinion used to explore some findings
further
Sample Usually a small number of non- Usually a large number of cases
representative cases. Respondents representing the population of
selected to fulfil a given quota. interest. Randomly selected
respondents.
Data Collection Unstructured or semi-structured Structured techniques such as
techniques e.g. individual depth online questionnaires, on-street or
interviews or group discussions. telephone interviews.
Data Analysis Non Statistical Statistical data is usually in the form
of tabulations (tabs). Findings are
conclusive and usually descriptive
in nature.
Outcome Exploratory and/or investigative. Used to recommend a final course
Findings are not conclusive and of action.
cannot be used to make
generalizations about the
population of interest. Develop an
initial understanding and sound
base for further decision making.
Maintaining ties
A good relationship with the supervisor is essential for several
reasons. It will greatly influence the quality and progress of your
work.
Remember that maintaining an excellent relationship with another
person and working closely for a long period is not easy. You have
to maintain a fine relation with the supervisor and also with your
seniors and colleagues throughout your period of association.
Backbiting and unwholesome arguments on academic matters,
research work and other matters should be avoided. The
supervisor will have a thorough knowledge of the subject of
research, however, at one stage you may feel that you have
acquired more knowledge than him in certain topics. But this is no
reason to show-off. You have to maintain politeness and courtesy.
Professional etiquette has to be followed. If your are consulting
another expert on some aspect of your work, it should be
necessarily be with the knowledge of your supervisor.
You should also take the supervisor’s criticism in the right spirit
and respond appropriately; there should be no reason for
Ethical Consideration/ Time
Management
Source of funding
Plagiarism/ Referencing
Time Management
Manage your time realistically and pace
yourself according to your time plan
Spend time on how you are going to go about
achieving your aims and objective
Leave room for unexpected work/illness
Project Management
Definition
“A project is a sequence of connected events
that are conducted over a defined and limited
period of time and are targeted towards
generating a unique but well defined outcome”
Phil Baguley”
Notable Projects
• Getting married
• The great wall of
• Buying a house
China • Arranging a
romantic
• The pyramid in
weekend
Egypt • Meeting your
dream partner
• Titanic
• Writing a book
• Individual; or
group final year
The heart of every project is the act of doing: Projects
Project
are about doing something Tangible or intangible
Project Classification
About anything
Any size
Last (any) agreed Length of time
Cost any agreed amount
Has deliverable (tangible or
intangible)
Involve any number of people
Project Fundaments
Each project is a one off activity
Each project is unique
Project has finite and specific duration
A project causes and results in a change
Each project has a defined and
measurable outcome
Managing Projects
Formula does not work.(too many variables)
Requires a kit of tools and techniques
Require a mix of hard and soft skills
Requires sensitivity to know what to do, how,
when where and with who and why.
Desired attributes of a Project
Manager
Problem solving
A questioning mind (all assumption
continuously)
“..if you can keep your head whiles all about
you are losing thiers…”
CARA
Credibility Authority Responsibility
Accountability
Project management Step 1: Design
Define the project scope
Identify the deliverables
Break the project down into activities
Break the activities down into tasks
Estimate how long each task will take and
what resources it will require
Identify the dependencies between the tasks
Draw up a provisional project network
Check plan to ensure all activities and task
are included.
Module Case Study
You are the design project manger within an Electronic product design
and manufacturing organisation. You have been giving the task of
preparing the project plan for the organisations next product by
representative of the customer this product is aimed at.
We want a pocket sized FM radio that can be used for reception of the
general FM band in particular for the reception of unilorin FM . The
radio needs to be capable of reception of the complete FM band as
currently designated with the usual features of a digital radio, buttons
for up and down in frequency. The facility to select unilorin FM simply
should be included. Volume control, possible tone control although this
is not considered essential plus the output should be stereo.
It should be battery powered rubbing on 2 penlight batteries and give
an indication of when the batteries are getting low. The radio must be
small enough to fit easily inside the pocket and come with a neck strap,
possibly about the size of a pen drive but this is not a firm requirement.
It should come with earphones clearly a manual will be need and a
guarantee.
Define the Project scope
Requirement capture
Some things to think about
-the product specification
-the physical specification
-the electrical specification
-the electrical environment
-Product approval requirement
-Quantity of prototypes
Your first task- produce an outline of the project scope
- detailed product specification (in professional electronic
engineer language)
Define the Project Scope
Requirement must capture
- Who are the stakeholders in the project
- What do they want out of it
- What quality of product is desired
Steps
Have a writing plan
Manage Project Resources and Encourage Team
Working
Put in Effective Control Processes
Close the project
Characteristics of Research
systematic
logical
empirical
reductive
replicable
Types of Research
Pure and Applied Research
Exploratory or Formulative Research
Descriptive Research
Diagnostic Study
Evaluation Studies
Action Research
Experimental Research
Analytical study or statistical Method
Historical Research
Surveys
Case Study
Research Design
The term “research design” means ‘drawing
for research’.
It is a systematic planning of conducting
research.
It aims to achieve goals of the research.
Definition
‘as the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
the relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure’-by Jahoda
‘a master plan, specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed
information’-by Zikmund
Need and Purpose
It helps in smooth sailing of the research process.
It saves the money, manpower and materials.
It helps the researchers for advance planning and
avoids duplication.
It helps to modify the research if any difficulties.
It gives reality to research.
Characteristics of Good Research
Design
Theory-Grounded,
Environment,
Feasibility of Implementation,
Redundancy,
Efficient.
Cont…
Research Design Process
Selection of research topic/problem,
Framing research design,
Framing sampling design,
Collection of data,
Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and
preservation
Writing research reports
It should be flexible
It should be economical
It should be unbiased
It should fulfill the objectives of the research
It should be more appropriate to all the
aspects of research.
Cont…
It should guide him to achieve correct results.
It provides scientific base for his research.
It also should facilitate to complete the
research work within the stipulated time.
Components of Research Design
Title of the investigation
Purpose of the study
Review of related literature
Statement of the problem
Scope of the investigation
Cont…
Objectives of the study
Variables
Hypothesis
Selection of sample
Data Collection
Analysis of data
Types of Research Design
Experimental Designs
Non- Experimental Designs
Experimental Designs
There are two types
Quasi-experimental
Experimental
Non-Experimental Design
Case study designs/method.
Content analysis.
Ethnography.
Focus groups.
Network analysis and sociometry.
Hypotheses
The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine
whether there is enough statistical evidence in favor of a
certain belief about a parameter.
An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation
or postulate by the researcher of what the researcher
considers the outcome of an investigation will be. It is
an informed/educated guess.
It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding
certain variables. It is the most specific way in which
an answer to a problem can be stated.
Define Hypothesis
A tentative statement about a population
parameter that might be true or wrong
The Difference Between An Hypothesis And A Problem
Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body
of knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory.
An hypothesis differs from a problem.
A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it
serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is
derived.
An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an
hypothesis can be tested and verified.
When is an Hypothesis Formulated
An hypothesis is formulated after the problem
has been stated and the literature study has
been concluded.
It is formulated when the researcher is
totally aware of the theoretical and empirical
background to the problem.
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF AN HYPOTHESIS
It offers explanations for the relationships between those
variables that can be empirically tested.
It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background
knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to
extend existing knowledge.
It gives direction to an investigation.
It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore
furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN HYPOTHESIS
It should have elucidating power.
It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the
phenomenon.
It must be verifiable.
It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms.
It should corresponds with existing knowledge.
Types of Hypotheses
1. Descriptive Hypotheses:
These are propositions that describe the characteristics
( such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The
variable may be an object, person, organization etc. ,
e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than
that of commerce graduates. The educational system is not
oriented to human resource needs of a country.
2. Relational Hypotheses.
These are propositions which describe the relationship
between tow variables.
e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation
Upper – class people have fewer children than lower
class people.
Cont…
3. Causal Hypotheses
It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable Causes or leads to an
effect on another variable.
The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the
dependent variable.
When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must
consider the direction in which such relationship flow
e.g: which is cause and which is effect
4. Working Hypotheses
While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are
formed.
Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they
are referred to as ‘ working hypotheses’ which are subject
to modification as the investigation proceeds.
Cont…
. Null Hypotheses
This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical
significance, since, this form is a convenient approach to
statistical analysis. As the test would nullify the null
hypotheses.
e.g., : There is a relationship between a family’s income and
expenditure on recreation, a null hypothesis may state: There is
no relationship between families income level and expenditure on
recreation.
6. Statistical Hypotheses
These are statements about a statistical population. These
are derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature
in that they are numerically measurable
Cont…
eg: Group A is older than B’
Common Sense Hypotheses
It state the existence of empirical uniformities perceived
through day to day observations.
e.g., “ Shop-assistants in small shops lack motivation”
8. Complex Hypotheses
These aim at testing the existence of logically derived
relationships between empirical uniformities.
e.g., In the early stage human ecology described empirical
uniformities in the distribution of land values, industrial
concentrations, types of business and other phenomena.
9. Analytical Hypotheses:
It concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These
hypotheses occur at the highest level of abstraction.
These specify relationship between changes in one property and
changes in another.
Eg., The study of human fertility might show empirical regularities by
wealth, education, region, and religion.
Characteristics of a Good Hypotheses
Conceptual Clarity
Specificity
Testability
Availability of Techniques
Theoretical relevance
Consistency
Objectivity
Simplicity
Sources of Hypotheses
Theory
Observation
Analogies
Intuition and personal experience
Findings of studies
State of Knowledge
Culture
Continuity of Research
Sampling
Sampling is the process
of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups
Basics of Sampling Theory
Population
Element
Defined target
population
Sampling unit
Sampling frame
Sampling Error
Sampling error is any type of bias
that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size
Developing a Sampling Plan
1. Define the Population of Interest
2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan
Defining Population of Interest
Population of interest is entirely dependent
on Management Problem, Research
Problems, and Research Design.
Some Bases for Defining Population:
Geographic Area
Demographics
Usage/Lifestyle
Awareness
Sampling Frame
A list of population elements (people,
companies, houses, cities, etc.) from which
units to be sampled can be selected.
Difficult to get an accurate list.
Sample frame error occurs when certain
elements of the population are accidentally
omitted or not included on the list.
See Survey Sampling International for some
good examples
http://www.surveysampling.com/
Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
• Simple random • Convenience
sampling sampling
• Systematic random • Judgment
sampling sampling
• Stratified random • Quota sampling
sampling • Snowball
• Cluster sampling sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a method of
probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected
Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is a
method of
probability sampling
in which the defined
target population is ordered
and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random Sample
1: Obtain a list of units that contains an
acceptable frame of the target population
2: Determine the number of units in the list and
the desired sample size
3: Compute the skip interval
4: Determine a random start point
5: Beginning at the start point, select the units
by choosing each unit that corresponds to the
skip interval
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is a
method of
probability sampling
in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples
are selected from each
Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random Sample
1: Divide the target population into
homogeneous subgroups or strata
2: Draw random samples fro each
stratum
3: Combine the samples from each
stratum into a single sample of the target
population
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when
"natural" groupings are evident in a statistical
population.
It is often used in marketing research.
It divide population into Comparable groups: Schools,
Cities etc..
cluster sampling is to reduce the average cost per
interview
the technique given more accurate results when most of
the variation in the population is within the groups,
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Convenience sampling relies
upon convenience and access
Judgment sampling relies upon belief
that participants fit characteristics
Quota sampling emphasizes representation
of specific characteristics
Snowball sampling relies upon respondent
referrals of others with like characteristics
Convenience samples: samples drawn at the convenience
of the interviewer. People tend to make the selection at
familiar locations and to choose respondents who are like
themselves.
Judgment samples: samples that require a judgment or an
“educated guess” on the part of the interviewer as to who
should represent the population. Also, “judges” (informed
individuals) may be asked to suggest who should be in the
sample.
Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of
certain types of individuals to be interviewed
snowball sampling: is a technique for developing a
research sample where existing study subjects recruit future
subjects from among their acquaintances.
Factors to Consider in Sample Design
Research objectives Degree of accuracy
Resources Time frame
Knowledge of
target population Research scope
Statistical analysis needs
Data Collection
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Data collection possibilities are wide and
varied with any one method of collection not
inherently better than any other
Each has pros and cons that must be weighed
up in view of a rich and complex context
The Data Collection Process
76
All methods of collection require rigorous
and systematic design and execution that
includes
thorough planning
well considered development
effective piloting
weighed modification
deliberate implementation and execution
appropriate management and analysis
Surveys
77
Surveying involves gathering information
from individuals using a questionnaire
Surveys can
reach a large number of respondents
generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical
data - as well as some qualitative data
and offer confidentiality / anonymity
Designing survey instruments capable of
generating credible data, however, can be
difficult
Survey Types
78
Surveys can be
descriptive or explanatory
involve entire populations or samples of populations
capture a moment or map trends
can be administered in a number of ways
Survey Construction
79
Survey construction involves
formulating questions and response categories
writing up background information and instruction
working through organization and length
determining layout and design
Interviewing
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Interviewing involves asking respondents a
series of open-ended questions
Interviews can generate both standardized
quantifiable data, and more in-depth
qualitative data
However, the complexities of people and the
complexities of communication can create
many opportunities for miscommunication
and misinterpretation
Interview Types
81
Interviews can range from
formal to informal
structured to unstructured
can be one on one or involve groups
Conducting Interviews
82
When conducting your interviews you will
need to
question, prompt, and probe in ways that help you
gather rich data
actively listen and make sense of what is being said
manage the overall process
Observation
83
Observation relies on the researchers’ ability
to gather data though their senses - and
allows researchers to document actual
behaviour rather than responses related to
behaviour
However, the observed can act differently
when surveilled, and observations can be
tainted by a researcher’s worldview
Observation Types
84
Observation can range from
non-participant to participant
candid to covert
from structured to unstructured
The Observation Process
85
The observation process is sometimes treated
casually, but is a method that needs to be
treated as rigorously as any other
The process should include planning,
observing, recording, reflecting, and
authenticating
Experimentation
86
Experimentation explores cause and effect
relationships by manipulating independent
variables in order to see if there is a
corresponding effect on a dependent variable
Experimentation
87
Pure experimentation requires both a
controlled environment and the use of a
randomly assigned control group
This can be difficult to achieve in human
centred experiments conducted in the real-
world
Real-World Experiments
88
There are many experiments that can only be
carried out in the messy uncontrolled
environments of the real-world, so the search
for cause and effect will require tradeoffs
between real-world contexts and a controlled
environment
questionnaire surveys (includes mail)
Advantages:
• Quick and easy to administer.
• Can get a large amount of information in a short time.
• Allows for employee participation.
• Does not require trained interviewer.
• Relatively less expensive.
Disadvantages:
• Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire.
• Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one.
• Often needs follow-up interview or observation.
• May be difficult to construct.
• May have low response rate.
• Responses may be incomplete.
• Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended)
Online surveys:
• The use of the Internet has made a huge difference to the way surveys are
conducted and has
become a science unto itself.
• quick to implement. Lower cost, higher
89
Face-to-face interviews :
Most informative method of qualitative data collection because
the human interaction of face-to-face interviews provides the opportunity to
probe for insights and build on responses for greater value.
Door-to-door: People are contacted at home and in person (abandoned in
Developed due to high cost of transport, staff)
Street / shopping mall intercepts: Popular in Developed Economies (some
Malls consider a nuisance).
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the
researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone.
Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face
interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The
sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of
the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
90
Web based questionnaires :
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an
address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type
of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method
include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access
a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a
hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal
interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along
a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database.
This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the
interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of
data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.
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