BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS
MODULE - 3
ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL
PRINCIPLES FOR
BIOENGINEERING DESIGN
MODULE-3 (5 HOURS)
ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR
BIOENGINEERING DESIGN:
Brain As A CPU System.
Eye As A Camera System.
Heart As A Pump System.
Lungs As Purification System.
Kidney As A Filtration System.
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS
The Human Body Is A
Biological Machine
Made Of Body Systems;
Groups Of Organs That Work Together
To Produce & Sustain Life.
ORGAN SYSTEMS
BIO-DESIGN
BIO-DESIGN
Bio Design Is Use Of Living Organisms In Design.
Its Processes Can Be Used In Creation Of Fashion,
Textiles, Furniture & Architecture.
Its An Emerging Design Movement Which Incorporates
The Use Of Living Materials, Or ‘Moist Media,’ Such As
Fungi, Algae, Yeast, Bacteria, & Cultured Tissue.
The Idea Is To Create A Product Whose Properties Are
Enhanced As A Result Of The Use Of These Living
Materials.
BIO-DESIGN
Transforming Engineered Yeast Cells Into
Collagen Leather & Spider Silk Threads.
Making Mycelium (Mushroom Fungus) Into
Leather & Chairs.
A Leather Substitute Made Of Shells From
Seafood Waste & Coffee Grounds.
BRAIN AS A CPU SYSTEM
BRAIN AS A CPU SYSTEM
Both CPU & Brain Use Electrical Signals
To Send Messages.
The Brain Uses Chemicals To Transmit
Information & Computer Uses Electricity.
Both Transmit Information.
BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE
BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE
A BCI System Is A Computer Based System
That Takes Brain Signals,
Analyses Them & Translates Them
Into Commands That Are Relayed To
A Device To Trigger; A Desired Action.
BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE
A BCI System Is Used To Measure Signals Produced By Central
Nervous System.
It Allow Users To Act In Their Environment When They Want It
By Reading Their Brain Signals Rather Than Muscles.
The User, After A Training Session, Produces Brain Signals
Encoded By BCI System.
The BCI Then Translates These Commands & Transmits Them
Into An Output Device.
Thus, A Sensor That Is Activated By Voice Or Movement Of
Muscle Is Not A BCI System.
BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Nervous System Has 2 Main Parts:
The Central Nervous System Is Made Up Of The
Brain & Spinal Cord.
The Peripheral Nervous System Is Made Up Of
Nerves That Branch Off From The Spinal Cord &
Extend To All Parts Of Body.
NERVOUS SYSTEM: CNS
CNS Includes Brain & Spinal Cord.
The Brain Is Body’s “Control Center”.
The CNS Has Various Centers Located Within It That
Carry Out The Sensory, Motor & Integration Of Data.
These Centers Can Be Subdivided To Lower Centers
(Including The Spinal Cord & Brain Stem) & Higher
Centers Communicating With The Brain Via Effectors.
NERVOUS SYSTEM: CNS
NERVOUS SYSTEM: PNS
PNS Is A Vast Network Of Spinal & Cranial
Nerves That Are Linked To Brain & Spinal Cord.
It Contains Sensory Receptors Which Help In
Processing Changes In Internal & External
Environment.
This Information Is Sent To The CNS Via Afferent
Sensory Nerves.
NERVOUS SYSTEM: PNS
The PNS Is Then Subdivided Into Autonomic
Nervous System & Somatic Nervous System.
The Autonomic Has Involuntary Control Of
Internal Organs, Blood Vessels, Smooth & Cardiac
Muscles.
The Somatic Has Voluntary Control Of Skin,
Bones, Joints, & Skeletal Muscle.
NERVOUS SYSTEM: PNS
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
A Neuron Sending A Signal (Presynaptic Neuron)
Releases A Chemical Called A Neurotransmitter, Which
Binds To A Receptor On The Surface Of Receiving;
Postsynaptic Neuron.
Neurotransmitters Are Released From Presynaptic
Terminals, Which May Branch To Communicate With
Several Postsynaptic Neurons.
Axon Terminals Are Where Neurotransmission Begins.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
At Axon Terminals Where The Neuron Sends Its
OUTPUT To Other Neurons.
At Electrical Synapses, The OUTPUT Will Be The
Electrical Signal Itself.
At Chemical Synapses, The OUTPUT Will Be
Neurotransmitter.
The Correct Outline For The Sequence Of Transmission
Of An Electrical Impulse Through A Neuron Is
Dendrites, Cell Body, Axon, Axon Terminal.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
ELECTRO ENCEPHALO GRAM
ELECTRO ENCEPHALO GRAM
An Electroencephalogram (EEG) Is A Test That
Measures Electrical Activity In Brain Using Small, Metal
Discs (Electrodes) Attached To The Scalp.
Brain Cells Communicate Via Electrical Impulses & Are
Active All The Time, Even During Asleep.
This Activity Shows Up As Wavy Lines On An EEG
Recording.
EEG Can Detect Abnormal Electrical Discharges Such
As Sharp Waves, Spikes Or Spike & Wave Complexes
That Are Seen In People With Epilepsy.
ELECTRO ENCEPHALO GRAM
ELECTRO ENCEPHALO GRAM
An EEG Might Also Be Helpful For Diagnosing Or
Treating:
Epilepsy Or Another Seizure Disorder.
Brain Tumors.
Brain Damage From Head Injury.
Brain Dysfunction That Can Have A Variety Of Causes
(Encephalopathy).
Sleep Disorders.
Inflammation Of Brain (Herpes Encephalitis).
Stroke.
Brain Death In A Persistent Coma.
ELECTRO ENCEPHALO GRAM
Derivatives Of The EEG Technique Include :
Evoked Potentials (EP):
• Involves Averaging EEG Activity Time Locked To
Presentation Of A Stimulus Of Some Sort e.g. Visual,
Somatosensory Or Auditory.
Event Related Potentials (ERPS):
• Refer To Averaged EEG Responses That Are Time
Locked To More Complex Processing Of Stimuli; This
Technique Is Used In Cognitive Science, Cognitive
Psychology, & Psychophysiological Research.
ELECTRO ENCEPHALO GRAM
ROBOTIC ARMS
FOR PROSTHETICS
ROBOTIC ARMS FOR PROSTHETICS
Robotic Prosthetic Limb Is A Well Established
Research Area That Integrates
Advanced Mechatronics, Intelligent Sensing
& Control For Achieving Higher Order Lost
Sensorimotor Functions While Maintaining
The Physical Appearance Of Amputated Limb.
ROBOTIC ARMS FOR PROSTHETICS
Robotic Prosthetic Limbs Are Expected To Replace The
Missing Limbs Of An Amputee Restoring The Lost
Functions & Providing Aesthetic Appearance.
The Main Aspects Are Enhanced Social Interaction,
Comfortable Amputee’s Life & Productive Amputee To
Society.
Most Current Robotic Prostheses Work By Recording
From Surface Of Skin Electrical Signals From Muscles
Left Intact After An Amputation.
ROBOTIC ARMS FOR PROSTHETICS
Robotic Arms Can Be Used To Automate The
Process Of Placing Goods Or Products Onto
Pallets.
By Automating The Process, Palletizing Becomes
More Accurate, Cost Effective & Predictable.
The Use Of Robotic Arms Also Frees Human
Workers From Performing Tasks That Present A
Risk Of Bodily Injury.
ROBOTIC ARMS FOR PROSTHETICS
ROBOTIC ARMS FOR PROSTHETICS
ROBOTIC ARMS FOR PROSTHETICS
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Parkinson’s Disease Is A Progressive Disorder
That Affects The Nervous System & The Parts Of
Body Controlled By Nerves.
In Parkinson’s Disease, Certain Nerve Cells
(Neurons) In Brain Gradually Break Down Or Die.
Many Of The Symptoms Are Due To A Loss Of
Neurons That Produce A Chemical Messenger In
Brain Called ‘Dopamine’.
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Symptoms Start Slowly.
The First Symptom May Be A Barely Noticeable Tremor In
Just One Hand.
Tremors Are Common, But Disorder May Also Cause
Stiffness Or Slowing Of Movement.
Parkinson’s Disease Can’t Be Cured, But Medications Can
Help Control Symptoms, Often Dramatically.
In Some More Advanced Cases, Surgery May Be Advised.
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS
FOR THIS DISEASE
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS
DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION
DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) Involves Surgically Implanting
A Neurotransmitter That Sends Electrical Impulses To Specific
Areas Of Brain.
This Procedure Has Helped Many People With Parkinson’s
Reduce Symptoms Such As Tremor, Rigidity & Bradykinesia.
There Are 6 Main Types Of Medications Available To Treat
Symptoms Of Parkinson Disease:
Levodopa, Dopamine Agonists, Inhibitors Of Enzymes That
Inactivate Dopamine Inhibitors, Catechol-O-Methyl
Transferase (COMT) Inhibitors, Anti-Cholinergic Drugs &
Amantadine.
DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION
ENGINEERING NEURONS
ENGINEERING NEURONS
Transplantation Of Embryonic Neurons Can
Restore Functional Dopaminergic Neurons In
Brains Of Patients With Parkinson’s Disease.
But While Promising, Cell Transplantation
Therapy Is Still Out Of Reach To Most Patients, In
Part Because Of The Inaccessibility Of Human
Embryonic Tissue.
ENGINEERING NEURONS
First Obtained Neuronal Stem Cells From Mouse Cells
Transfected With A Transcription Factor That Encourages
Cells To Adopt A Neuronal Fate.
Then Co-cultured The Cells With Astrocytes, Which
Release A Factor That Induces Development Into
Dopaminergic Neurons.
The Engineered Cells Released Dopamine & Some
Maintained Characteristics Of Dopaminergic Neurons For
Up To 2 Weeks After Implantation Into Mouse Brains.
ENGINEERING NEURONS
THE HUMAN EYE
EYE VS CAMERA
THE HUMAN EYE VS CAMERA
He Human Eye Is A Wonderful Instrument,
Relying On Refraction & Lenses To Form
Images.
There Are Many Similarities Between The
Human Eye & A Camera, Including:
THE HUMAN EYE VS CAMERA
A Diaphragm To Control The Amount Of Light That
Gets Through To The Lens:
This Is The Shutter In A Camera, & The Pupil, At
The Centre Of The Iris, In The Human Eye.
THE HUMAN EYE VS CAMERA
A Lens To Focus The Light & Create An Image.
The Image Is Real & Inverted.
THE HUMAN EYE VS CAMERA
A Method Of Sensing The Image.
In A Camera, Film Is Used To Record The Image; In
The Eye, The Image Is Focused On The Retina.
RODS & CONES
RODS & CONES
Photoreceptors In Eye Are Localized Around An Area
Near Centre Of Retina Called Macula, Which Is
Functional Centre Of Retina.
The Fovea Is Located In Centre Of The Macula.
The Macula Is Responsible For High Resolution,
Colour Vision, Provided By Different Types Of
Photoreceptors.
Photoreceptors In The Retina Are Classified Into 2
Groups, Named After Their Physical Morphologies.
RODS & CONES
Rod Cells Are Highly Sensitive To Light &
Function In Night Vision.
Whereas Cone Cells Are Capable Of Detecting
A Wide Spectrum Of Light Photons & Are
Responsible For Colour Vision.
Rods & Cones Are Structurally
Compartmentalized.
RODS & CONES
They Consist Of 5 Principal Regions:
Outer Segment.
Connecting Cilium.
Inner Segment.
Nuclear Region.
Synaptic Region.
RODS & CONES
Rods Are Responsible For Vision At Low Light Levels
(Scotopic Vision), They Do Not Mediate Colour
Vision & Have A Low Spatial Acuity.
Cones Are Active At Higher Light Levels (Photopic
Vision), Are Capable Of Colour Vision & Are
Responsible For High Spatial Acuity.
The Central Fovea Is Populated Exclusively By
Cones.
Visible Spectrum For Human Eye Is From About 380
To About 750 Nanometers.
RODS & CONES
There Are 3 Types Of Cones:
The Short-Wavelength Sensitive Cones (S-Cone).
The Middle-Wavelength Sensitive Cones (M-Cones).
The Long-Wavelength Sensitive Cones (L-Cones).
OPTICAL CORRECTIONS
OPTICAL CORRECTIONS
The Ability To See Images Or Objects With Clear,
Sharp Vision Results From Light Entering The Eye.
Light Rays Bend Or Refract When They Hit The
Retina, Sending Nerve Signals To The Optic Nerve,
Which Then Sends These Signals To The Brain.
The Brain Processes Them Into Images, Allowing You
To Understand What You See.
When These Light Rays Bend Incorrectly, It Results In
A Refractive Error & Typically Causes Blurry Or
Cloudy Vision.
OPTICAL CORRECTIONS
Since The Primary Cause Of Vision Problems Is
Caused By Light Bending Incorrectly As It Enters The
Eye, Virtually Any Method Of Treatment That Changes
This Can Be Categorized As A Form Of Vision
Correction.
A Slight Modification Of Geometrically Correct Lines
For Purpose Of Making Them Appear Correct To The
Eye.
OPTICAL CORRECTIONS
Eyeglasses & Contact Lenses:
The Most Common Types Of Corrective Measures,
Always Recommended As First Course Of
Treatment For Vision Problems.
While They Are Considered Very Basic Method Of
Vision Correction, They Are Unable To Control The
Refractive Error From Progressing.
Patients Whose Vision Worsens Over Time Need
New Glasses Or Contacts Lenses.
LENS MATERIALS
LENS
Corrective Sphero-Cylindrical Lenses Are Commonly
Used To Treat Refractive Errors Such As Myopia,
Hyperopia, Presbyopia, & Astigmatism.
Both Lenses & Prisms Are Also Frequently Used To
Improve Eye Alignment & Treat Diplopia In
Strabismus.
Eyeglasses Also Serve An Important Role In Protecting
The Eyes From Physical Trauma & Harmful
Radiation.
LENS MATERIALS
Lenses Can Be Produced Using A Variety Of Materials
& Designed With Several Optical Profiles To Optimize
Use In Specific Applications.
Critical Lens Properties Include Refractive Index,
Abbe Number (Chromatic Dispersion), Specific
Gravity, & Ultraviolet (<400nm) Absorption.
LENS MATERIALS
The Most Common Lens Material Is, Of Course,
Optical Glass, But Crystals & Plastics Are Frequently
Used.
There Are 5 Main Types Of Lens Materials For
Eyeglasses & Sunglasses.
Each Type Of Lens Material Can Help Correct
Refractive Errors Such As Near-Sightedness
(Myopia), Far-Sightedness (Hyperopia), Astigmatism,
Or Presbyopia.
LENS MATERIALS: CR-39
The Most Used Plastic Lens Material For Years Was CR-39.
It Was First Developed As A Replacement For Glass Lenses
During World War II.
It Still Has 55% Of World Market At Age 60.
The Patent Was Awarded To Muskat & Strain Of Pittsburgh
Plate Glass Company (Now Named PPG) in 1946.
LENS MATERIALS: CR-39
CR-39 Is Available In All Lens Styles & From Multiple
Manufacturers.
The Basic Monomer Comes From PPG, & Then Each
Company Adds Their Own Materials To Create Their
Lenses.
Advantages Include Light Weight, Good Optical
Properties, & Tinting Well.
Disadvantages Of CR-39 Are That It Is The Thickest
Material & Scratches Easily.
CROWN GLASS
Is The Most Commonly Used Clear Glass For
Ophthalmic Lenses.
In General, Glass Is Most Durable Material Used For
Lenses.
Crown Glass Is Used Mainly For Single Vision Lenses
& Distance Carrier For Most Glass Bifocals &
Trifocals.
CROWN GLASS
It Has An Index Of Refraction Of 1.523 & An Abbe
Value Of 59.
It Is Approximately 4% Thinner Than CR-39 Resin
Lenses & Is 40% Heavier Than Polycarbonate Lenses
& Is Slightly Lighter Than High Index Glass.
It Blocks Out About 10% Of UV Light.
FLINT GLASS
Uses Lead Oxides In Its Chemical Make Up To
Increase Its Index Of Refraction To Approximately
1.58 To 1.69.
Its Abbe Value Ranges From 30 To 40.
This Material Is Relatively Soft, Displays A Brilliant
Lustre & Has Chromatic Aberration.
FLINT GLASS
It Was Used In Past As Single Vision Alternative For
Higher Rx Lenses, Its Use Today Is Often Limited To
Segments For Some Fused Bifocals.
The Advantages Of Glass Lenses Include Optical
Clarity, Resistance To Scratches, & It Is The Least
Susceptible To Chemicals.
The Disadvantages Include That It Is The Heaviest
Material & It Is Less Impact Resistant Than Other
Materials.
POLYCARBONATE LENSES
Polycarbonate Lenses Were First Developed By
Company Named Gentex.
Polycarbonate Is A Thermoplastic Which Means It Is
Mouldable Under Sufficient Heat.
In The 1950’s It Was Marketed Under Name Lexan &
Due To Its Extraordinary Resistance To Impact Was
Originally Manufactured For Safety Devices.
CATARACT
CATARACT
The Lens Is Positioned Behind The Coloured Part Of Eye
(Iris).
The Lens Focuses Light That Passes Into Eye, Producing
Clear, Sharp Images On Retina (Light Sensitive
Membrane) In Eye That Functions Like The Film In A
Camera.
As You Age, Lenses In Your Eyes Become Less Flexible,
Less Transparent & Thicker.
Age Related & Other Medical Conditions Cause Proteins
& Fibers Within Lenses To Break Down & Clump
Together, Clouding The Lenses.
CATARACT
A Cataract Is A Clouding Of Normally Clear Lens Of
The Eye.
At First, Cloudiness In Vision Caused By A Cataract
May Affect Only A Small Part Of Eye’s Lens & May
Be Unaware Of Any Vision Loss.
As Cataract Continues To Develop, The Clouding
Becomes Denser.
This May Lead To More Noticeable Symptoms.
CATARACT
A Cataract Scatters; Distorts & Blocks The Light
As It Passes Through The Lens, Preventing A
Sharply Defined Image From Reaching Retina.
As A Result, Vision Becomes Blurred.
CATARACT
Cataracts Generally Develop In Both Eyes, But Not
Always At The Same Rate.
In One Eye May Be More Advanced Than The Other,
Causing A Difference In Vision Between Eyes.
Cataracts May Be Partial Or Complete, Stationary Or
Progressive, Hard Or Soft.
Histologically, The Main Types Of Age-Related
Cataracts Are Nuclear Sclerosis, Cortical, & Posterior
Sub-Capsular.
CATARACT: NUCLEAR SCLEROSIS
Nuclear Sclerosis Is Most Common Type Of Cataract
& Involves Central Or ‘Nuclear’ Part Of Lens.
This Eventually Becomes Hard, Or ‘Sclerotic’, Due To
Condensation On Lens Nucleus & Deposition Of
Brown Pigment Within The Lens.
In Its Advanced Stages, It Is Called A ‘Brunescent
Cataract’.
CATARACT: CORTICAL
Cortical Cataracts Are Due To The Lens Cortex
(Outer Layer) Becoming Opaque.
They Occur When Changes In Fluid Contained In
Periphery Of The Lens Causes Fissuring.
Symptoms Often Include Problems With Glare &
Light Scatter At Night.
CATARACT: CORTICAL
When These Cataracts Are Viewed Through An
Ophthalmoscope The Appearance Is Similar To
White Spokes Of A Wheel
CATARACT: POSTERIOR SUBCAPSULAR
Posterior Subcapsular Cataracts Are Cloudy At
The Back Of Lens Adjacent To The Capsule (Or
Bag) In Which The Lens Sits.
Because Light Becomes More Focused Toward
Back Of The Lens, They Can Cause
Disproportionate Symptoms For Their Size.
CATARACT
An Immature Cataract Has Some Transparent
Protein, But With A Mature Cataract, All The
Lens Protein Is Opaque.
In A Hyper-Mature Or ‘Morgagnian Cataract’,
The Lens Proteins Have Become Liquid.
Congenital Cataract, Which May Be Detected In
Adulthood, Has A Different Classification &
Includes Lamellar, Polar, & Sutural Cataracts.
BIONIC EYES
BIONIC EYES
Bionic Eye, Electrical Prosthesis Surgically
Implanted Into A Human Eye In Order To
Allow For Transduction Of Light In People
Who Have Sustained Severe Damage To The
Retina.
BIONIC EYES
Technology Provided By This Helps Blind People To
Get Vision Again.
The Bionic Eye Is An Artificial Eye Which Provide
Visual Sensations To The Brain.
It Comprises An External Camera, Transmitter & An
Internal Microchip.
Image Captured By Camera Are Focused To Chip
Which Converts It Into Electronic Signal That Brain
Can Interpret.
BIONIC EYES
It Consist Of Electronic Systems Having:
Image Sensors (Camera).
Radio Transmitter.
Receiver.
Microprocessors.
Retinal Chips.
BIONIC EYES
The Camera Is Mounted On A Pair Of
Eyeglasses, Where It Serves To Organize Visual
Stimuli Of Environment Before Emitting High
Frequency Radio Waves.
The Stimulator Microchip Consists Of An
Electrode Array That Is Surgically Implanted
Into The Retina, That Functions As An Electrical
Relay In Place Of Degenerated Retinal Cells.
BIONIC EYES
The Radio Waves That Are Emitted By The
External Camera & Transmitter Are Received
By The Stimulator, Which Then Fires Electrical
Impulses.
The Impulses Are Relayed By Few Remaining
Retinal Cells Through Implanted Retinal Chip &
Are Transduced As Normal To The Optic Nerve
Pathway, Resulting In Vision.
BIONIC EYES
It Is An Expensive Treatment & Not Everyone Can
Afford It.
Since Research Is Still Going On Results Are Yet Not
100% Successful.
The Images Produced By Bionic Eye Were Not Be Too
Much Perfect But They Could Be Clear Enough To
Recognize.
The Implant Bypasses The Diseased Cells In The
Retina & Go Through The Remaining Possible Cells.
Any Query?
