E-Government Functions and Methods

An Introduction to Functions, Technologies, and

Impact
 Introduction to E-Government
• E-Government (Electronic Government) signifies the
strategic use of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT), particularly the internet, by
government agencies. It represents a fundamental shift
from traditional, paper-based bureaucracy to streamlined,
citizen-centric digital processes.
• Plays a crucial role in modernizing governance, fostering
citizen engagement, and driving economic development.
• Core Goal: To enhance the efficiency, transparency,
accessibility, and responsiveness of government
operations and public service delivery.
 Key Areas of Application
• E-Government impacts multiple facets of governance:
– Service Delivery to Citizens: Making public services more
convenient and accessible (e.g., online applications, payments).
– Internal Government Operations: Improving efficiency within and
between government departments (e.g., workflow automation,
data sharing).
– Decision-Making & Policy Implementation: Utilizing data and
analytics for informed policy design and execution.
– Transparency & Accountability: Opening government processes
and data to public scrutiny to combat corruption and build trust.
– Overall Digital Transformation: Fundamentally changing how
government operates and interacts with society in the digital era.
 Service Delivery to Citizens
Online Public Services

• Governments worldwide offer a growing array of services

online, moving beyond simple information provision.
• Significantly increases convenience by eliminating the need
for physical visits to government offices, saving time and
effort for citizens and businesses.
• Examples: Filing taxes, renewing driving licenses or permits,
applying for social benefits (pensions, unemployment),
registering businesses, accessing health records, reporting
non-emergency issues.
 Service Delivery to Citizens
Digital Identity Systems

• Digital Identity Systems provide citizens with a unique, verifiable

electronic credential (e.g., national eID card, mobile ID).
• Allows secure authentication and access across various
government portals and online services with a single login.
• Benefits:
– Reduces administrative burden (less paperwork, fewer repetitive data
entries).
– Enhances security and reduces identity fraud.
– Streamlines service delivery by enabling seamless data exchange
(with consent).
 Service Delivery to Citizens
24/7 Accessibility

• Digital platforms and online services are typically

available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
• A key advantage over traditional government offices
with fixed operating hours.
• Caters to citizens with varied schedules (e.g., shift
workers) and businesses operating outside standard
hours, improving overall accessibility and user
satisfaction.
 Internal Government Operations
E-Government in Administrative Processes

• Focuses on digitizing and automating internal workflows and

administrative tasks.
• Minimizes manual intervention in routine tasks, reducing
processing times.
• Decreases errors associated with manual data entry and handling.
• Improves overall operational efficiency and frees up staff for more
complex duties.
• Examples: Digital document management, automated approval
chains, electronic record keeping, online human resource
management.
 Internal Government Operations
Data Sharing Across Departments

• Historically, government agencies often operated in isolation

("silos"), leading to data duplication and inefficiencies.
• E-Government facilitates the secure integration and sharing of data
between different departments and agencies (interoperability).
• Benefits:
– Provides a more holistic view of citizens and issues.
– Enhances policy coordination and development.
– Reduces redundancy (e.g., asking citizens for the same information multiple
times).
– Improves the quality and speed of service delivery (e.g., faster benefit
processing).
 Decision-Making and Policy
Implementation
Data-Driven Policymaking

• E-Government enables the collection and analysis of vast

amounts of data related to societal trends, service usage, and
economic activity.
• Governments use data analytics tools to identify patterns,
predict future needs, model the potential impact of policies,
and evaluate program effectiveness.
• Benefit: Leads to more informed, targeted, and effective
policies that better address societal challenges and citizen
needs.
 Decision-Making and Policy
Implementation
AI and Big Data in Government

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): Involves using algorithms to enable

machines to perform tasks typically requiring human intelligence
(e.g., analysis, prediction, automation).
• Big Data: Refers to the massive volumes of structured and
unstructured data generated daily.
• Applications:
– Optimizing resource allocation (e.g., deploying emergency services).
– Automating citizen inquiries (e.g., chatbots).
– Predicting policy outcomes based on complex simulations.
– Detecting anomalies (e.g., fraud detection).
 Decision-Making and Policy
Implementation
Predictive Analytics for Governance

• Is a specific application of data analysis focusing on forecasting

future events or trends.
• Enables proactive rather than reactive governance.
• Examples:
– Disaster Management: Predicting potential impact areas for floods or
earthquakes to guide evacuation and resource deployment.
– Healthcare Planning: Forecasting disease outbreaks or demand for
specific medical services.
– Law Enforcement: Identifying potential crime hotspots to optimize
police patrols (requires careful ethical consideration).
 Transparency and Accountability
Open Data Initiatives

• Involves proactively publishing non-sensitive government datasets

online in open, machine-readable formats.
• Promotes transparency by allowing citizens, journalists, and
researchers to scrutinize government activities.
• Enables citizen participation and co-creation of solutions.
• Fosters innovation (e.g., developers creating apps using public
transit data).
• Creates economic value.
• Often facilitated through dedicated Open Government Data (OGD)
portals.
 Transparency and Accountability
Anti-Corruption Measures

• Digital systems can significantly reduce opportunities for

corruption which leads to increased oversight and public trust in
government integrity.
• Mechanisms:
– Digital Audit Trails - Tracking transactions and decisions creates
accountability.
– Reduced Discretion - Automating processes limits opportunities for
arbitrary decisions or demands.
– Transparent E-Procurement - Online public tendering processes increase
visibility.
– Online Payments - Reducing cash handling minimizes leakage.
 Transparency and Accountability
Citizen Feedback Mechanisms

• E-Government platforms provide channels for citizens to

engage directly with government.
• Allows governments to gather input on policies and service
quality.
• Fosters a sense of participation and co-ownership.
• Helps identify issues and areas for improvement quickly.
• Examples: Online feedback forms, public consultation
portals, official social media channels, citizen reporting
apps (e.g., for potholes, broken streetlights).
 Digital Transformation of Government
Services
Benefits of Digitalization

• Cost Reduction: Lowering expenses related to paper, printing,

physical storage, manual processing, and physical infrastructure.
• Efficiency Improvement: Speeding up processes, reducing errors,
and optimizing resource allocation.
• Better Citizen Engagement: Improving accessibility, convenience,
and providing channels for interaction and feedback.
• Improved Service Quality: Offering more personalized, reliable,
and responsive services.
• Enhanced Transparency & Accountability: Making processes and
data more open.
 Digital Transformation of Government
Services
Challenges in Digital Transformation

• Resistance to Change: Cultural inertia within government agencies and reluctance

from staff or citizens to adopt new processes. Requires change management and
training.
• Cybersecurity Threats: Protecting sensitive data and critical infrastructure from
increasingly sophisticated cyberattacks.
• Infrastructure Limitations: Ensuring adequate and reliable internet connectivity and
hardware, especially addressing the "digital divide" (urban vs. rural, rich vs. poor).
• Digital Literacy: Equipping both government employees and citizens with the
necessary skills to use digital tools effectively.
• Data Privacy Concerns: Balancing data sharing for efficiency with robust privacy
protection measures.
• Cost of Implementation: Initial investment in technology and training can be
substantial.
 Digital Transformation of Government
Services
Best Practices from Leading Nations

• Several countries are recognized pioneers in E-

Government:
– Estonia: Known for its comprehensive digital identity system,
extensive online services ("e-Estonia"), and digital voting.
– Singapore: Focus on integrated services, smart nation
initiatives, and efficient digital infrastructure (e.g., SingPass).
– South Korea: High levels of internet penetration, advanced
digital infrastructure, and widespread adoption of online
government services.
 Online Portals and Websites
Government Websites for Information and Services

• Official government websites and portals serve as the

primary online interface between the government and the
public.
• Provide centralized, authoritative access to:
– Official information (laws, regulations, news, contacts).
– Downloadable forms and documents.
– Links to transactional online services.
• Aim to be a "single source of truth" for government
information.
 Online Portals and Websites
Government Websites for Information and Services

• Require interfaces that are intuitive and accessible

– Simple Navigation: Clear menus and logical structure.
– Effective Search Functionality: Helping users find information quickly.
– Accessibility Features: Compliance with standards (e.g., WCAG) for
users with disabilities (screen reader compatibility, keyboard
navigation, adjustable text size).
– Multilingual Support: Catering to diverse linguistic populations.
– Mobile Responsiveness: Ensuring websites adapt seamlessly to
different screen sizes (desktops, tablets, smartphones).
– Clear Language: Avoiding bureaucratic jargon.
 Online Portals and Websites
Case Studies: Government Portals

• GOV.UK (United Kingdom)

– Highly regarded for its user-centric design principle ("Simple,
Clear, Fast").
– Consolidates numerous government websites into a single,
consistent platform focused on user needs.
• Digital India Portal (India)
– Acts as a gateway to various initiatives under the ambitious Digital
India program, aiming to transform India into a digitally
empowered society and knowledge economy.
– Integrates services linked to the Aadhaar digital identity system.
 Mobile Government (M-Government)
• Is the use of mobile and wireless technologies
(smartphones, tablets, SMS) to deliver government
information and services.
• Leverages the ubiquity of mobile devices, especially in
regions where traditional internet access may be limited.
• Applications:
– Government mobile apps for specific services.
– SMS notifications and alerts (e.g., emergency warnings, tax
reminders).
– Mobile payments for government fees or fines.
– Mobile-based voting pilots.
– Accessing information via mobile-optimized websites.
 Mobile Government (M-Government)
Benefits of Mobile Government

• Wider Accessibility: Reaches citizens who may primarily access the

internet via mobile devices, helping bridge the digital divide.
• Real-time Engagement: Enables timely communication through
push notifications and alerts.
• Cost-Effective Implementation: Often leverages existing mobile
network infrastructure.
• Convenience: Allows citizens to interact with government anytime,
anywhere.
• Personalization: Services can be tailored based on location or user
preferences.
 Mobile Government (M-Government)
Examples from Different Countries
• Many countries use SMS for public health alerts, election
information, and emergency warnings.
• Kenya
– Widespread use of mobile money platforms (like M-Pesa) integrated for
government payments, including taxes and fees (e.g., KRA M-Service).
• India
– Numerous mobile apps for services related to agriculture (mKisan),
health (mHealth initiatives), citizen services (UMANG app consolidating
various services).
• Estonia
– Mobile-ID provides secure authentication for accessing e-services via
smartphone.
 Cloud Computing in E-Government
How Governments Use Cloud Services

• Governments increasingly adopt cloud computing (using remote servers

hosted on the internet) instead of relying solely on in-house data centers.
• Uses:
– Data Storage: Storing large volumes of government data securely.
– Computing Power: Accessing scalable processing power for applications and
analytics.
– Application Hosting: Running government websites and online services.
– Software as a Service (SaaS): Using cloud-based software for functions like email,
collaboration, or HR.
– Disaster Recovery & Backup: Ensuring business continuity.
• Models include private cloud (dedicated), public cloud (shared), and
hybrid cloud (mix).
 Cloud Computing in E-Government
Security Concerns in Cloud Adoption

• While offering benefits, cloud adoption requires careful consideration of security:

– Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to sensitive citizen or government data stored in the
cloud.
• Concerns in cloud adoption:
– Data Sovereignty & Residency: Concerns about where data is physically stored and which
country's laws apply.
– Compliance: Ensuring cloud providers meet government security standards and
regulations.
– Vendor Lock-in: Difficulty in migrating data and applications away from a specific cloud
provider.
• Thus, cloud adoption requires robust security measures (encryption, access
controls), clear contracts, audits, and adherence to established security
frameworks.
 Cloud Computing in E-Government
Cost-Effectiveness of Cloud Solutions

• Reduces the need for large upfront investments (Capital

Expenditure) in physical hardware and infrastructure, moving to
a pay-as-you-go operational expense (Operational Expenditure)
model.
• Can easily scale computing resources up or down based on
demand, paying only for what is used.
• Reduced maintenance as the cloud provider handles
infrastructure maintenance, upgrades, and patching.
• Can lead to overall savings compared to managing traditional
on-premise data centers.
 Big Data Analytics in Governance
Role of Big Data in Public Administration

• Governments collect and generate enormous amounts of data from

various sources (sensors, transactions, social media, surveys).
• Big Data Analytics involves using advanced tools and techniques to
analyze these large, complex datasets to uncover patterns, trends,
and correlations.
• Helps optimize public administration in areas like:
– Urban Planning: Improving traffic flow, managing utilities (water, energy).
– Healthcare: Tracking disease outbreaks, allocating resources effectively.
– Crime Prevention: Identifying patterns to inform policing strategies.
– Economic Policy: Understanding economic trends and impacts.
 Big Data Analytics in Governance
Challenges in Implementation

• Data Privacy Concerns: Ensuring analysis respects citizen privacy and

complies with data protection regulations (e.g., GDPR). Requires
robust anonymization and security.
• Integration with Existing Systems: Difficulty integrating new analytics
platforms with legacy government IT systems.
• Need for Skilled Personnel: Shortage of data scientists, analysts, and
IT professionals skilled in Big Data technologies within government.
• Data Quality and Standardization: Ensuring data from various sources
is accurate, complete, and comparable.
• Ethical Considerations: Avoiding bias in algorithms and ensuring
fairness in data-driven decisions.
 E-Government and Cybersecurity
Threats to E-Government Systems

• Digital government systems are attractive targets for various

threats:
– Cyberattacks: Malicious attempts to disrupt services (e.g., Distributed
Denial of Service - DDoS), steal data, or gain unauthorized access.
Includes ransomware attacks that encrypt data and demand payment.
– Hacking: Exploiting vulnerabilities in software or infrastructure to
compromise systems.
– Data Leaks/Breaches: Accidental or intentional exposure of sensitive
citizen or government data.
– Insider Threats: Malicious actions by individuals within the organization.
– State-Sponsored Espionage/Attacks: Attempts by foreign powers to steal
information or disrupt critical infrastructure.
 E-Government and Cybersecurity
Strategies for Enhancing Cybersecurity

• A multi-layered approach is essential:

– Strong Encryption: Protecting data both when stored (at rest) and when transmitted
(in transit).
– Regular Security Audits & Penetration Testing: Proactively identifying and fixing
vulnerabilities.
– Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Requiring multiple forms of verification for access.
– Intrusion Detection & Prevention Systems (IDPS): Monitoring networks for malicious
activity.
– Employee Training & Awareness: Educating staff about phishing scams and security
best practices.
– Incident Response Plans: Having clear procedures for dealing with security breaches.
– Public-Private Collaboration: Sharing threat intelligence between government and
industry.
 E-Government and Cybersecurity
International Cybersecurity Policies

• Governments often align with or adopt international standards and

regulations.
• These frameworks promote consistency, provide benchmarks, and facilitate
international cooperation on cybersecurity challenges.
• GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation - EU)
– While focused on data privacy, it sets high standards for data security that influence
global practices.
• NIST Cybersecurity Framework (USA)
– A widely adopted voluntary framework providing standards, guidelines, and best
practices to manage cybersecurity risk.
• ISO 27001
– An international standard for information security management systems (ISMS).
 E-Government and Public-Private
Partnerships (PPPs)
Collaboration Between Governments and Private Sector

• Governments often collaborate with private technology

companies (from large corporations to startups) to develop and
implement E-Government solutions.
• The collaborations leverage private sector expertise, innovation
capacity, investment, and agility.
• Forms of Collaboration:
– Outsourcing development of specific platforms or apps.
– Joint ventures for large-scale projects.
– Procuring specialized technology solutions (e.g., cloud services, AI tools).
– Co-designing services with tech partners.
 E-Government and Public-Private
Partnerships (PPPs)
Benefits and Challenges of PPPs

• Benefits:
– Faster Innovation & Deployment: Access to cutting-edge technology and quicker
development cycles.
– Risk Sharing: Sharing the financial and operational risks of large projects.
– Access to Expertise: Tapping into specialized skills not readily available within
government.
– Potential Cost Savings: Leveraging private sector efficiencies.
• Challenges:
– Data Privacy & Security: Ensuring private partners handle citizen data appropriately.
– Vendor Lock-in: Becoming overly dependent on a single provider.
– Ensuring Public Interest: Aligning private sector profit motives with public service goals.
– Transparency & Accountability: Maintaining transparency in procurement and
partnership agreements.
– Complexity: Managing complex contractual relationships.
 E-Government and Public-Private
Partnerships (PPPs)
Successful Case Studies of PPPs

• Public-Private Partnerships have been instrumental in several high-profile E-

Government initiatives.
• Strategic collaboration can leverage private sector strengths (technology,
speed, scale) to achieve ambitious public sector digital goals, though careful
management of risks (privacy, cost, alignment) is crucial.
• India’s Aadhaar System:
– The world's largest biometric ID system, foundational to India's digital
transformation ("India Stack").
– While government-led (UIDAI), its implementation involved numerous private
sector vendors for crucial aspects like biometric enrollment technology and
hardware, data center infrastructure management, and application development
for services using Aadhaar authentication.
– Highlights the scale PPPs can help achieve in massive national projects.
 Digital Payment Systems in E-Government
Online Tax Payments

• Electronic tax filing (e-filing) and online payment systems are fundamental E-
Government applications adopted globally.
• Allow citizens and businesses to calculate, submit tax returns, and pay taxes due
via secure online portals or integrated payment gateways.
• Benefits for Citizens/Businesses:
– Increased convenience (available 24/7, no physical visits).
– Reduced paperwork and potential for calculation errors.
– Faster processing of returns and refunds.
– Often integrates with accounting software.
• Benefits for Government:
– Improved tax compliance rates and revenue collection efficiency.
– Reduced administrative costs associated with manual processing.
– Enhanced accuracy and data availability for auditing.
 Digital Payment Systems in E-Government
E-Procurement Transactions

• E-Procurement involves shifting government purchasing processes (publishing

tenders, receiving bids, evaluating proposals, awarding contracts) onto digital
platforms.
• Online portals allow suppliers to register, view opportunities, submit bids
electronically, and track the status of procurement processes.
• Benefits:
– Enhanced Transparency: Public visibility of tendering processes and contract awards
significantly reduces opportunities for corruption and favoritism.
– Increased Efficiency: Streamlines the complex procurement lifecycle, reducing time and
administrative burden.
– Wider Supplier Access: Makes it easier for businesses, including Small and Medium
Enterprises (SMEs), to find and compete for government contracts, promoting fair
competition.
– Improved Auditability: Creates a clear digital trail for all procurement activities, facilitating
oversight and accountability.
 Digital Payment Systems in E-Government
Government Digital Wallets

• Governments may develop proprietary digital wallet applications or integrate with

existing commercial mobile money/wallet systems.
• Applications:
– Disbursing Benefits: Efficiently and securely distributing social welfare payments, subsidies,
pensions, or emergency relief funds directly to citizens' digital wallets or linked bank
accounts.
– Receiving Payments: Allowing citizens to make payments to the government (e.g., for fees,
fines, licenses, utility bills) conveniently through digital wallets.
• Benefits:
– Speed & Efficiency: Faster delivery of funds compared to checks or cash.
– Reduced Fraud & Leakage: Minimizes risks associated with physical cash handling.
– Lower Administrative Costs: Reduces costs of printing checks, handling cash, and manual
reconciliation.
– Financial Inclusion: Provides a mechanism for unbanked or underbanked populations to
receive and make government payments.
 Smart Cities and E-Government
Role of E-Government in Smart Cities

• E-Government acts as the digital backbone and nervous

system of a Smart City.
– It provides the necessary infrastructure, platforms, data
management capabilities, and service delivery channels that connect
various smart city components (sensors, transport systems, utilities,
citizens).
– Enables integrated city management, data-driven urban planning,
efficient resource allocation, and delivery of smart services to
residents and businesses.
– Supports sustainable urban development, improves quality of life,
and enhances operational efficiency.
 Smart Cities and E-Government
Internet of Things (IoT) in Urban Governance

• IoT refers to the network of physical devices, vehicles, buildings, and other
items embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity, enabling them to
collect and exchange data.
• Provides real-time data for optimizing resource management and improving
urban services.
• Applications in Smart Cities:
– Smart Traffic Management: Sensors monitor traffic flow, adjust signals, guide drivers,
manage parking.
– Smart Energy Grids: Optimize energy distribution and consumption.
– Smart Waste Management: Sensors in bins signal when full, optimizing collection
routes.
– Environmental Monitoring: Sensors track air quality, water quality, noise levels.
– Smart Lighting: Adjusting streetlights based on occupancy or ambient light.
 Smart Cities and E-Government
Case Studies of Smart Cities

• Singapore (Smart Nation Initiative)

– A comprehensive, whole-of-nation approach integrating technology
across transport, housing, healthcare, and government services.
Focus on seamless living and digital economy.
• Barcelona, Spain
– An early adopter known for using IoT for public services like smart
parking, waste management, energy-efficient lighting, and public
Wi-Fi.
• These initiatives showcase how integrated digital governance
supports sustainable and efficient urban environments.
 E-Government for Rural Development
Digital Inclusion Strategies

• Ensuring rural populations are not left behind by digitalization is crucial.

• Provide equitable access to digital infrastructure, services, and the skills
needed to use them effectively.
• Strategies:
– Infrastructure Investment: Expanding broadband (fixed and mobile) coverage to
underserved areas.
– Public Access Points: Establishing internet access centers in libraries, community
centers, or post offices.
– Affordability Programs: Subsidies for internet connectivity or devices.
– Digital Literacy Training: Offering programs tailored to the needs of rural communities
(e.g., using agricultural apps, accessing health info, online banking).
– Locally Relevant Content: Ensuring services and information are available in local
languages and address specific rural needs.
 E-Government for Rural Development
E-Government Solutions for Remote Areas

• Specific technological approaches are needed for remote and

challenging environments.
– Mobile Broadband: Leveraging 4G/5G networks where available is often
the most cost-effective solution.
– Satellite Internet: Providing connectivity in areas where terrestrial
infrastructure is unfeasible (e.g., Starlink, OneWeb).
– Community Networks / Wi-Fi Hotspots: Local initiatives to share
connectivity.
– Mobile Service Delivery: Equipping vehicles as mobile government service
centers with digital capabilities.
– Offline/Low-Bandwidth Solutions: Designing essential services that can
function with limited or intermittent connectivity.
 E-Government for Rural Development
Challenges in Rural Connectivity

• Infrastructure Costs
– High cost of deploying fiber optic cables or mobile towers across vast, sparsely
populated areas ("last mile" problem).
• Affordability
– Cost of internet plans and digital devices can be prohibitive for low-income rural
households.
• Digital Literacy Gaps
– Lack of skills and confidence to use digital tools effectively.
• Relevant Content/Services
– Services may not be tailored to rural needs or available in local languages.
• Reliable Power Supply
– Lack of consistent electricity can hinder device usage and infrastructure operation.
• Maintenance
– Difficulty in maintaining infrastructure in remote locations.
 Evaluating the Effectiveness of E-
Government
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

• Evaluating E-Government requires quantifiable metrics (KPIs).

– Service Adoption Rates: Percentage of eligible users utilizing online services vs
traditional channels.
– Transaction Completion Times: Average time taken to complete specific online
services.
– Cost Savings: Calculating savings per transaction (digital vs manual), reduced
administrative overhead.
– System Availability/Uptime: Percentage of time digital services are operational.
– Error Reduction Rates: Comparing error rates in digital processes vs manual
ones.
– Digital Divide Metrics: Tracking usage across different demographics (age,
income, location) to assess inclusion.
– Website/App Performance: Load times, task success rates.
 Evaluating the Effectiveness of E-
Government
Citizen Satisfaction Surveys

• Measuring citizen satisfaction is critical for assessing success and

guiding improvements.
• Provides direct feedback on ease of use, usefulness, trust, and
overall perception of digital services, ensuring a user-centric
approach.
• Methods:
– Online surveys presented after using a service.
– Periodic general surveys on overall E-Government experience.
– Usability testing sessions (observing users attempting tasks).
– Feedback forms embedded on websites/apps.
– Analysis of comments on social media or helpdesk inquiries.
 Future of E-Government
What's Next for Digital Governance?
• E-Government continues to evolve rapidly.
– Increased AI Integration: Moving towards proactive, predictive, and highly
personalized services; deeper automation of complex tasks.
– Expansion of Blockchain Use: Wider adoption for secure identity, records
management, and potentially verifiable voting or smart contracts.
– Greater Emphasis on Cybersecurity & Resilience: A constant focus required
due to evolving threats, incorporating Zero Trust principles.
– Seamless Cross-Agency Integration: Towards a "tell us once," whole-of-
government approach providing integrated services.
– Hyper-Personalization: Tailoring services and information to individual
citizen needs and circumstances (requires strong data ethics).
– Focus on Digital Ethics & Rights: Growing importance of governing AI use,
ensuring data privacy, and upholding digital rights.
– Citizen Co-Creation: More involvement of citizens in designing and
improving digital services.