Hydrodynamics
Flow in pipes
• Hydrodynamics is a branch of fluid mechanics that deals with the
study of the motion of fluids (liquids and gases) and the forces acting
upon them.
• It is specifically concerned with the behavior of incompressible fluids
(typically liquids) in motion.
• While fluid mechanics encompasses both fluids at rest (fluid statics)
and in motion (fluid dynamics), hydrodynamics is often used to refer
to the latter.
Cont.….
• Here are the general concepts that form the foundation of hydrodynamics in
fluid mechanics
1. Fluid Properties
• Density (ρ): The mass per unit volume of the fluid.
• Viscosity (μ): A measure of a fluid's resistance to deformation or flow. It
describes the internal friction of the fluid.
• Pressure (P): The force exerted by the fluid per unit area, typically measured in
pascals (Pa).
• Velocity (v): The rate at which a fluid particle moves in a given direction.
• Temperature: In many cases, temperature affects the viscosity and density of
the fluid
2. Fluid Flow Types
• Steady vs. Unsteady Flow: In steady flow, the fluid's velocity at any given point
does not change over time, while in unsteady flow, the velocity changes with
time.
• Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow:
• Laminar flow occurs when fluid moves smoothly in parallel layers, with minimal mixing
between layers. It is characterized by low velocities and is often seen in highly viscous
fluids.
• Turbulent flow is chaotic, with eddies and vortices forming. It occurs at high velocities
and is characterized by irregular fluctuations.
• Incompressible vs. Compressible Flow: Hydrodynamics typically deals with
incompressible flow, where the fluid density does not change significantly, as
with most liquids. Compressible flow refers to gases, where density changes
significantly due to pressure and temperature variations.
• The discharge is controlled by the valve and the small ‘filament’
of dye (practically a streamline) indicates the behavior of the
flow. By changing the flow Reynolds noticed:
• At low flows/velocities the filament remained intact and almost
straight. This type of flow is known as laminar flow, and the
experiment looks like this:
• At higher flows the filament began to oscillate. This is called transitional flow and
the experiment looks like
• Lastly, for even higher flows again, the filament is found to break up completely and
gets diffused over the full cross-section. This is known as turbulent flow
• Reynolds experimented with different fluids, pipes and velocities.
Eventually he found that the following expression predicted
which type of flow was found:
• In which Re is called the Reynolds Number; ρ is the fluid density;
v is the average velocity; l is the characteristic length of the
system (just the diameter for pipes), and; μ is the fluid viscosity.
• The Reynolds Number is a ration of forces and hence has no
units.
3. Conservation Laws
• Hydrodynamics is based on several fundamental physical principles:
• Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation): This principle states that
mass is conserved in a fluid flow. For an incompressible fluid, the
continuity equation can be expressed as: ∇⋅v=0\nabla \cdot \mathbf{v} =
0∇⋅v=0 This implies that the mass entering a region is equal to the mass
leaving it.
• Conservation of Momentum (Navier-Stokes Equations): These
equations describe the motion of fluids and represent the balance of
forces acting on a fluid element. They account for forces due to pressure,
viscosity, and external forces (like gravity):
Conservation of Energy: Energy conservation in a fluid flow considers
the transformation of mechanical energy (kinetic and potential energy)
into heat and work.
4. Flow Characteristics
• Flow Rate: The volume of fluid passing through a given area per unit
of time. It is commonly used to describe the rate at which a fluid flows
in pipes or channels.
• Reynolds Number (Re): A dimensionless number that predicts the
flow regime (laminar or turbulent). It is defined as:
• where L is a characteristic length, such as the diameter of a pipe. Low
Reynolds numbers (Re < 2000) indicate laminar flow, while high values
(Re > 4000) indicate turbulent flow.
Flows in pipes normally conform to the following:
• Re < 2000 : gives laminar flow;
• 2000 < Re < 4000: transitional flow;
• Re > 4000 : turbulent flow.
• These values are only a rough guide however. Laminar flows
have been found at Reynolds Numbers far beyond even 4000.
• For example, if we consider a garden hose of 15 mm diameter
then the limiting average velocity for laminar flow is:
• This is a very low flow and hence we can see that in most
applications we deal with turbulent flow.
• The velocity below which there is no turbulence is called the
critical velocity
Characteristics of Flow Types
For laminar flow:
• Re < 2000;
• ‘low’ velocity;
• Dye does not mix with water;
• Fluid particles move in straight lines;
• Simple mathematical analysis possible;
• Rare in practical water systems.
Transitional flow
• 2000 < Re < 4000
• ‘medium’ velocity
• Filament oscillates and mixes slightly
Turbulent flow
• Re > 4000;
• ‘high’ velocity;
• Dye mixes rapidly and completely;
• Particle paths completely irregular;
• Average motion is in the direction of the flow;
• Mathematical analysis very difficult - experimental measures are
used;
• Most common type of flow
• Oil flows through a 25 mm diameter pipe with mean velocity of
0.3 m/s. Given that the viscosity μ = 4.8×10−2 kg/ms and the
density ρ = 800 kg/m3 , calculate: (a) the friction head loss and
resultant pressure drop in a 45 m length of pipe, and; (b) the
maximum velocity, and the velocity 5 mm from the pipe wall.
Solution
• Firstly check that the laminar flow equations developed apply,
that is, Re < 2000:
• 1. To find the friction head loss, we apply the Hagen-Poiseuille
Equation:
Example
• Oil with a relative density of 0.925 and an absolute viscosity of 0.10 Pa ⋅s flows through a 6.0 mm
diameter pipe with a mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Will the flow be laminar or turbulent?
• Continuity equation for incompressible flow
• Water flows through a pipe reducer section at a rate of 30 L/s. The pipe diameter before the reducer
is 200 mm and the diameter after the reducer is 150 mm. Determine the velocity in both sections of
pipe.
Hazen-Williams Formula for Friction Losses in Pipes
• The Hazen-Williams formula is an empirical formula, which was developed to determine losses due
to friction for water flow in pipes. The formula gives reasonable results for pipe sizes greater than or
equal to 50 mm in diameter and for velocities of less 3 m/s.
• This is typical of the ranges found in most municipal water supply systems, where the pipe sizes are
usually 150 mm or larger and the velocities are usually restricted to a maximum of 2 m/s.
• Because the formula is empirical and is not dimensionally correct, there are two versions of the
formula, one for metric and one for the fps or British system
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• Example
• Water flows at a rate of 34 L/s through a horizontal φ150 ductile iron pipe. Determine the head loss
in 400 m of pipe using the Hazen-Williams formula.
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Exercise
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