Mineral

Mineral Processing
Processing
Min
Min Pro
Pro

 Lecture Notes compiled by:

H. Ngarivume (0772 122 488/

0733 565 740)

Course
Course objectives
objectives

 Basic mineral processing theory and

practice
 Metallurgical calculations & efficiency

of metallurgical operations
 Trouble shooting in the processing

plant
 Routine process plant parameter
control
1.0
1.0 Introduction
Introduction
 Learning outcomes

 have a knowledge and understanding of ore

and mineral deposits, gangue and minerals
 have a knowledge and understanding of the
techniques used to concentrate minerals
 understand the role of mineral processing
 have a knowledge and understanding of
comminution theories that can help predict the
power drawn by crushers and mills.
 understand process flowsheets
Definition
Definition

 separation or concentration of
valuable materials or metal bearing
components from unwanted
minerals, mainly by physical and
mechanical methods.
 Comminution
(particle size reduction)

Classification
(separation according to
particle size)

Filtering Minerals
and Processing
dewatering

Concentration
- separation based
Miscellaneous on composition

- control, sampling
Minerals
Minerals and
and ores
ores

 Mineral – is a naturally occurring

inorganic substance of definite
chemical composition and crystal
structure eg FeS2, FeO.Cr2O3 &
(Fe,Ni)9S8

 Gangue- are all minerals having no

economic value in the ore.
Minerals
Minerals and
and ores
ores

 Ore - mixture of minerals (one or more)

which can be economically exploited e.g
Pt-ore, Platinum-group minerals (PGMs),
(Pt,Pd)S, Pt-Pd-Bi-Te, PtAs2, Pt-Fe.

 Platinum mostly associated with base

metal sulphides - CuFeS2, FeS2,
(Ni,Fe)9S8 etc.
Minerals
Minerals and
and ores
ores

 i. oxides- eg iron ores; haematite

and magnetite
 ii. sulphides- eg CuFeS , FeS . Ni,
2 2
Co, Zn, Pb & Hg also occur as
sulphide ores. Sulphides sometimes
contain native metals ie Ag, Au, Pt &
Pt group of metals (pgms)
Minerals
Minerals and
and ores
ores

 iii. oxysalts – include silicates,

carbonates, aluminates etc.

 iv. Native form- these are metals

found in their elemental state. They
include; Ag, Au, Pt, pgms, Cu & Hg
Role
Role of
of Mineral
Mineral Processing
Processing

Two main objectives

 Liberation &

 Separation
Liberation
Liberation
Separation
Separation

 Is the concentration of minerals

based on physical or chemical
properties.

 Various techniques exist.

Role
Role of
of Mineral
Mineral Processing
Processing

Concentrate (Valuable
product)

Middlings (Intermediate
Feed product)
Contains same valuable product
as concentrate but in a more
diluted
form
Tailings (discarded
product)
Flowsheets
Flowsheets

 A flowsheet is a diagrammatic
representation showing the
sequence of operations in the
processing plant.

 Two forms ie block flowsheet and

line flowsheet
 Flowsheets
Flowsheets

Block flowsheet
 Is the simplest form which groups

processes of similar nature.

Flowsheets
Flowsheets

Line flowsheet
 Is detailed and can indicate

machines, settings, rates etc.

Comminution
Comminution

 Comminution is the progressive

reduction in particle size of minerals

 achieved by crushing and grinding

Comminution
Comminution

 Objectives of comminution (size

reduction)

 to achieve liberation

 to create surface area (flotation)

Theory
Theory of
of comminution
comminution

 Is concerned with the relationship

between energy input and product
particle size produced from a given
feed
Rittinger’s
Rittinger’s Law
Law (1867)
(1867)

 Energy consumed is proportional to

area of the new surface produced.
Kick’s
Kick’s Law
Law (1885)
(1885)

 States that energy consumed in size

reduction is proportional to the
reduction in volume of the particles
Bond’s
Bond’s Law
Law (1952)
(1952)

 Energy consumed in size reduction is

proportional to crack tip length of
particle produced in breakage.


Bond’s
Bond’s Law
Law (1952)
(1952)

 For practical purposes the size in

microns in which 80% of the material
passes is selected.

 above equation transforms to;

Work
Work index
index

 Is the comminution parameter which

expresses the resistance of the
material to comminution

 Numerically Wi is kwh/t required to

reduce the material from a
theoretically infinite feed size to 80%
passing 100 microns.
Grindability
Grindability

 This refers to the ease with which

ore can be comminuted.

 The most widely used parameter to

measure grindability is the bond
work index Wi.
Limitations
Limitations of
of the
the comminution
comminution
laws
laws

i. Each of the laws apply to a narrow range

of particle size

ii. Not all the energy applied to the

machine is used in size reduction
Limitations
Limitations of
of the
the comminution
comminution
laws
laws

iii. Material which is plastic will

consume energy in changing shape,
without creating significant new
surface.

iv. Theories assume material to be

brittle
2.0
2.0 Crushing
Crushing
Learning
Learning outcomes
outcomes

 have a knowledge & understanding of;

different crushers & other comminution equipment



crushing mechanisms, applications, advantages

and disadvantages

 factors influencing operation & quantify effect

of these factors, if possible
2.0
2.0 Crushing
Crushing

 Is the 1st mechanical stage in the

process of comminution

 Crushing is usually a dry process and

normally performed in two or three
stages ie primary, secondary and
tertiary crushing
2.0
2.0 Crushing
Crushing

 Purpose of crushing

 maximum size reduction - feed

preparation for grinding circuit
 top size reduction for materials

handling and conveyor belt design

 top size control for minimum fines

reduction
2.0
2.0 Crushing
Crushing circuits
circuits

 Crushing can be done in;

 open circuit or

 closed circuit
Advantage
Advantage of
of closed
closed circuit
circuit

 allows flexibility of crushing

operation by making it possible to
select the product particle size.
Ore
Ore handling
handling in
in crushing
crushing plants
plants

 Ore transportation
 Ore storage

 Ore feeding

 Washing of ore
Ore
Ore storage
storage

 different operations different rates

 breakdowns in the plant e.t.c

 surge bins even out flow

 blending of ore done, consistent feed

Ore
Ore storage
storage

 stock piles, ore bins, tanks

 ROM ore difficult to store because of

segregation
 unstable minerals shouldn’t be

stored for long

 wet ore can freeze – difficult to move
transportation
transportation

 tractors, dump trucks, wagons, lorries,

conveyor belts, chutes e.t.c used
 Chutes

-deeply sloping conveyances utilising

gravity for downward transport of ore
-lowest cost, no moving parts, no power
feeders
feeders

 Is a device for controlling transfer of

material from a storage bin to cv
belt
 deliver uniform stream of ore

 essentially a conveying op, distance

travelled short & close reg of rate of

transfer
chain
chain feeder
feeder
apron
apron feeder
feeder
vibrating
vibrating feeder
feeder
other
other feeders
feeders

 tube & slot, reciprocating plate, belt

e.t.c
Conveyor
Conveyor belts
belts

 basically rubber belts

 move ore – crushing, screening,

grinding
 driven by friction btwn belt & pulleys
Op
Op of
of cv
cv belt
belt indices
indices

 actual time of operation

 utilisation factor ie time of actual op

relative to specific planned time of

operation
 belt speed
idlers
idlers

 small diameter cylinders fitted with

bearings at each end, which
supports the conveyor belt
pumps
pumps

 2 main types ie + displacement &

impellor type of pumps
 pumping involves addition of ke &

pe to a liq enabling it to move

 Flow thru pipe or raise to a higher

level
surging
surging

 Is throttling of delivery line due to;

 i. pumping liq at suction head

 ii. Liq pumped with air pockects

 iii. Insufficient flow delivery to the

pump
Primary
Primary crushing
crushing

 Lumps of R.O.M ore as large as 1.5m

diameter are reduced to a size of
about 10 to 20cm
 Primary crushers usually in line with

scalping screens (grizzlies)

 two main types used at this stage ie

the jaw crusher and the gyratory

crusher
Jaw
Jaw crusher
crusher

Jaw
important
important definitions
definitions

 gape/mouth
is the distance btwn jaws at feed opening & determines how
large feed blocks entering
 Set
is the maximum opening of jaws at the discharge & controls
product size
- can be adjusted
- wear on jaws compensated by adjusting
the back pillow
important
important definitions
definitions

 throw/stroke
is the maximum amplitude of swing of
the jaw i.e. max distance at delivery
 angle of nip

is the angle btwn jaws, varies 11 - 26°

larger angles → slipping, reduction in
capacity and increased wear
Jaw
Jaw crusher
crusher

Jaw crushers are rated according to the

receiving areas ie jaw width x gape.
 The discharge size of material is

controlled by the set and the feed size is

controlled by the gape.
 The jaws are constructed from cast

steel & are fitted with replaceable liners

made from Mn steel or ‘Ni – hard’.
Jaw
Jaw crusher
crusher

 Primary crusher
 lower capacity than gyratory crusher

 suited for hard, tough and abrasive

rocks
 suited for crushing of ferro-alloys

 extremely hard and abrasive

 FeV, FeCr

 feed must be prepared

Gyratory
Gyratory crusher
crusher
Gyratory
Gyratory crusher
crusher

 The spindle maximum movement

occurs at the discharge.
 crushes on full cycle and hence has

a higher capacity than a jaw crusher

of the same gap.
 crusher identified by the dimension

of the feed opening and spindle

diameter.
Gyratory
Gyratory crusher
crusher

 Primary crusher
 Large capacity

 More suitable for slabby feeds

 Slow compression of crushing head


limits fines generation

 Position of head centre to bowl must

be varied to compensate for wear
Secondary
Secondary crushing
crushing

 reduce 1° crusher discharge 10 -

20cm to a final product of 0.5 to
2cm diameter
 crushers are much lighter than jaw

crushers
 Examples are; cone, roll & hammer

mills
Cone
Cone crusher
crusher
Cone
Cone crusher
crusher

 Normally used for secondary and

subsequent stages of crushing
 High capacity

 High reduction ratio (hammer

action of crushing head)

 Non-choking characteristics
Roll
Roll crusher
crusher

Low reduction ratio

Small amount of fines
High wear
Crushing
Crushing plant
plant operation
operation

 Goal is to efficiently produce max

quantity of finished product at
specified size i.e. short time & min
cost possible
Crushing
Crushing plant
plant operation
operation

aspects to be monitored include;

 product size- if oversize material too big,

the crusher is stopped and adjusted

 Maximise throughput so as to reduce

operating time which saves on power

costs and makes clean up time available.
Crushing
Crushing plant
plant operation
operation

 Checks for leaks on the oil and water

systems, conveyor belt tracking, belt
condition, effectiveness of belt
scrappers and conditions of
conveyor trip wires
 Levels of ore bins
Operator
Operator controlled
controlled variables
variables

feed rate

 alter speed of feeders

 highest production rates obtained by

increasing feed rate till power cons,
oil pressure indicate max through put
Operator
Operator controlled
controlled variables
variables

crusher setting
 must be varied to compensate for

liner wear & maintain product size

 this can be changed to vary

crushing rate if product size not
critical
3.0
3.0 Screening
Screening
What
What is
is screening
screening ??


Mechanical separation of particles on the
basis of size


Use a perforated surface which acts as a
go/no go gauge


Retained material – oversize


Passing material – undersize
Purpose
Purpose of
of screening
screening

 Scalping
 Remove over or undersize material –
Run of Mine/Crushers
 Crushing
 Limit oversize
 Limit undersize

 Produce a sized feed

 Produce a sized end product
Other
Other applications
applications

 Desliming- remove fines (typically

<0.5 mm).
 Dewatering- remove moisture.

 Drain and rinse- medium recovery in

dense medium circuits.

 Trash removal- remove plastic and

wood from underground.

Types
Types of
of screens
screens

 Primary classification according to

action
 Static – stationery
 Dynamic - vibration
Static
Static Screens
Screens

 Grizzly
 Heavy duty applications
 Installed at a downward angle

 20 to 50 degrees
 Scalping before crushers
 Remove fines
 Aperture size 100 – 300 mm
 Simple and robust
Grizzly
Grizzly
Static
Static Screens
Screens

 Flat panel
 Light duty applications
 Installed at a downward angle

 Remove excess water or medium

 Used in conjunction with vibrating

screen
 Aperture size 0.5 - 2 mm

 Simple easy to maintain

Flat
Flat panel
panel
Static
Static Screens
Screens

 Sievebend
 Curved surface
 Screening surface

 Wedgewire (WW) or
 Polyurethane (PU)

 Open area WW >> PU

 Life PU >> WW
Sievebend
Sievebend
Dynamic
Dynamic Screens
Screens

 Vibrating grizzly
 Similar to static grizzly except that
shaking action is introduced.
Vibrating
Vibrating grizzly
grizzly
Dynamic
Dynamic Screens
Screens

 Trommel
 Slightly inclined rotating cylindrical
screen
 Cheap, vibration free and robust

 Low capacity – use 1/3 of screening

area at any given point in time

 Prone to blinding
Trommel
Trommel screen
screen
Trommel
Trommel screen
screen

 Applications
 Sizing – sand and gravel industry
 Scalping – diamond

 Trash removal – beach sands

Vibrating
Vibrating screens
screens

 Multidecks
 Single

 Double

 Triple
Dynamic
Dynamic Screens
Screens
Dynamic
Dynamic Screens
Screens

 Other types
 Linear screens
 Slurry fed from top

 Rotating cloth which acts as screening

media
 Trash removal (woodchip)

 Sizing

 0.15 to 0.5 mm
Linear
Linear screens
screens
Important
Important terms
terms

Open area
 refers to the total area of apertures

Aperture
 refers to the opening of the surface

and can be round, square,

rectangular, teardrop etc
Important
Important terms
terms

Blinding
 is the gradual build up of fine material on

the screen apertures.

Pegging
 is when particles lodge in apertures.
Important
Important terms
terms

separation size

 refers to the average particle size that

will pass through the screen

 under normal operating conditions,

separation size is less than aperture
size
Operator
Operator controlled
controlled variables
variables

 not common since screens designed

to treat whatever crushers produce

 feed rate can be controlled to avoid

overloading the deck, done by;
• limiting crusher output
• changing speed of feeders
Screening
Screening efficiency
efficiency

Bad screening efficiency can be due to a

number of things which include;

 overfeeding
 blinded screen mats
 uneven feed distribution
 screen mechanically defective
Screening
Screening efficiency
efficiency

 these faults can and must be rectified to

ensure maximum effectiveness of the
screen

 Crusher efficiency can be judged by

looking at a screen product
4.0
4.0 Grinding
Grinding
Learning
Learning outcomes
outcomes

have a knowledge and understanding of;



 factors influencing operation & be able to

quantify the effect of these factors, if possible
 the function of classification equipment in
close-circuit grinding
 the effect of the separation efficiency of the
classification equipment on mill performance &
subsequent processing
 Different mill types available
grinding
grinding

 is the final stage of comminution

 is performed in rotating cylindrical

vessels known as tumbling mills

 mills contain grinding media which

are large, hard & heavy vs ore

particles
 usually performed wet although dry

process is possible
Cross
Cross section
section of
of tumbling
tumbling mill
mill
Milling
Milling (Modes
(Modes of
of breakage)
breakage)

Compression breakage
Impact spalling
Surface chipping
Surface
abrasion
by rubbing

Self breakage
Impact cracking
mill
mill speed
speed

Definition

Critical mill speed

 Speed at which charge starts to centrifuge

 nc = 42.3/(D-d)0.5
with nc in rpm
D = mill diameter
d = particle diameter
Charge
Charge volume
volume

 Definition

 percentage of the cross sectional

area of the mill occupied by
balls/rods and their interstices
Ball
Ball mill
mill operation
operation

 Large balls needed to crush large ore

pieces

 Hard ore requires larger balls

 Finer grinding requires larger surface

area per unit mass  smaller balls 
attrition milling surface effect
 Ball
Ball mill
mill operation
operation
 Usually used in closed-circuit
grinding
Ball
Ball mill
mill operation
operation

Closed-circuit grinding

 prevent over grinding

 increase throughput

 Usually 250% circulating load


 circulating load = mass of solids in class underflow * 100
mass of solids in feed
Ball
Ball mill
mill operation
operation

 Slurry density
 Viscous enough to cover balls
 If H2O is increased
 reduces number of smaller particles to
be milled
 reduces number of effective impacts

 Even more H2O - slurry not viscous

enough to cover balls - power draw
decreases
Important
Important parameters
parameters
Autogenous
Autogenous and
and Semi-Autogenous
Semi-Autogenous
milling
milling
 Autogenous : self generated/ produced

the use of ore lumps as grinding media

 Main advantages

lower capital cost

ability to treat wide range of ore types

 Disadvantages

Ore type must be amenable to milling

Control of feed properties
Autogenous
Autogenous and
and Semi-Autogenous
Semi-Autogenous
milling
milling

 Key variables

 Feed size
 Ore hardness

 Mill speed

 Ball size (SAG)

 Ball loading (SAG)

Autogenous
Autogenous and
and Semi-Autogenous
Semi-Autogenous
milling
milling

Feed size

 Grinding media comes from ore

 change in feed size distribution

 change in grinding size

distribution
Autogenous
Autogenous and
and Semi-Autogenous
Semi-Autogenous
milling
milling

Feed size
AG-milling

 large enough rocks for impact

breaking of smaller sizes
 In general AG mill performs better

with coarser feeds

Autogenous
Autogenous and
and Semi-Autogenous
Semi-Autogenous
milling
milling

Feed size
SAG mills
 no need for large rocks for impact

breaking
 big rocks become burden

 Feed size impact greater on AG-

milling than SAG-milling
Autogenous
Autogenous and
and Semi-Autogenous
Semi-Autogenous
milling
milling

Ore hardness
 Harder ore requires coarser feed size

 AG milling
 Too soft ore  not large enough
quantities of larger grinding media
produced  throughput decreases
 Too hard ore  difficult to break critical

size  throughput decreases

Autogenous
Autogenous and
and Semi-Autogenous
Semi-Autogenous
milling
milling
 Circuit-configuration
•lower
throughput
• finer product
•cyclone cut
must not
be too small 
large
recirculating
Autogenous
Autogenous and
and Semi-Autogenous
Semi-Autogenous
milling
milling
 Circuit-configuration
Significant increase
in
throughput
 critical size fraction

25-50 mm removed
less grinding
media
Single
Single stage
stage milling
milling

Mill
Mill Silo
Silo

22 xx SAG
SAG Mill
Mill

22’
22’ DD xx 33’
33’ L
L
55 MW
MW
220
220 tph
tph
250
250 tph
tph
Double
Double stage
stage milling
milling

P80
P80 =
= 75um
75um
Mill
Mill
Mill
Mill
Silo
Silo
Silo
Silo

22 X
X SAG
SAG Mills
Mills
16’
16’D D xx 30’
30’ L
L
33 MW
MW
220
220 tph
tph 22 xx Ball
Ball Mills
Mills
250
250 tph
tph
14’
14’ D x24
D x24 ‘‘ L
L
33 MW
MW
Milling
Milling in
in Practice
Practice

 Single stage milling

 Lowest capital and working costs
 Simplicity
 Exceptions
 Fine ore : F80 < 80 mm
 Hard component in ore, build up of critical size
 Economy of scale - single large mill
 Risk ?
5.0
5.0 Classification
Classification
Learning
Learning outcomes
outcomes

 have a knowledge and understanding of;

 factors influencing separation of particles

 hindered & free settling and how this influences the

separation of particles

 hydrocyclone as a classification device

 factors affecting cyclone performance

Classification
Classification

- Particles of various sizes, shapes and

specific gravities are separated by
being allowed to settle in a fluid.
factors
factors influencing
influencing separation
separation

 What factors influence the separation of the

particles


Factors relating to the properties of the
particles

Factors relating to the property of the fluid
(e.g. water, air or dense medium)

External acceleration forces (gravity,
centrifugal forces)

Flow regime (e.g. laminar or turbulent)
factors
factors influencing
influencing separation
separation

 Factors relating to the particle

properties

 size (equivalent diameter)

 density
 shape of particle
 surface roughness
factors
factors influencing
influencing separation
separation

Factors relating to the property of the

fluid
 viscosity

 % solids (relates to the viscosity of

fluid)
 stability of medium in fluid

 density of fluid
classification
classification

 Classification - particles settling in a

fluid

Two types of settling

 Free settling (no interference of flow

patterns)

 Hindered settling (interference of flow

patterns
flow
flow of
of bodies
bodies through
through fluids
fluids

Laminar flow Turbulent

flow
flow
flow of
of bodies
bodies through
through fluids
fluids

Terminal velocity (no acceleration)

 dv/dt = 0

 Equal-settling particles
- have the same terminal velocity in
the same fluid and force field
Types
Types of
of classifiers
classifiers

 Horizontal current
 Vertical current
Settling
Settling cone
cone
Hydraulic
Hydraulic classifier
classifier
Mechanical
Mechanical classifier
classifier
Spiral
Spiral classifier
classifier
Classification
Classification Cyclones
Cyclones
hydrocyclone
hydrocyclone

 What is a classification cyclone?

 Static device (no moving parts)
 Purpose is to separate (classify) a feed

into a
 Coarse fraction
 Fine fraction

 On the basis of size

 Transport medium is water
hydrocyclone
hydrocyclone

 Terminology

Hydrocyclone, classification cyclone and
cyclone used interchangeably

Slurry – mixture of ore particles and
water

Feed – slurry being introduced into the
cyclone

Overflow – contains the fine fraction

Underflow – contains the coarse fraction
Cyclone
Cyclone components
components

1. Overflow elbow
2. Vortex finder
3. Inlet head
4. Barrel
5. Conical section
6. Spigot
factors
factors affecting
affecting cyclone
cyclone
performance
performance

 Cyclone diameter
 Feed pressure

 Vortex finder and spigot diameter

 Solids concentration in feed

factors
factors affecting
affecting cyclone
cyclone
performance
performance

Cyclone diameter

 Determines capacity
 Smaller cyclones

 High velocities and forces

 classify finer (other things being equal)

 d50  Dcx
c
factors
factors affecting
affecting cyclone
cyclone
performance
performance

Feed pressure

 Flowrate of slurry determines feed

pressure
 Pressure  Flowrate

 d50  1/ Pn
c
 Normal operating pressure = 85 kPa
factors
factors affecting
affecting cyclone
cyclone
performance
performance

Vortex finder and spigot diameter

 Sizes determine volumetric split of feed

fluid
 Water to underflow reduced by:
 spigot diameter 

 larger vortex finder

 higher pressures
factors
factors affecting
affecting cyclone
cyclone
performance
performance
Most important variable controlling its
performance
Optimum ~ 15% solids by
volume
practical
practical aspects
aspects

 Underflow density
 high as possible - reduces amount of

bypassing
 affects cut-point

 Max 50% solids by volume

6.0
6.0 Metallurgical
Metallurgical Accounting
Accounting &
&
Control
Control
Learning
Learning outcomes
outcomes

 have a knowledge and understanding

of;

automatic and manual sampling

 sample division methods & sample preparation

 the process control variables

 the relationship between grade and recovery

 the performance measurements

Metallurgical
Metallurgical Accounting
Accounting

 is a procedure which determines the

distribution of the various products
of a concentrator and the values
contained in them.
Essential
Essential Requirements
Requirements

 Representative sampling of process

streams
 Accurate analysis of the valuable

components
 Reliable and accurate measurement

of the mass flow rates of important

streams.
Sampling
Sampling

 is a means whereby a small amount

of material is taken from the main
bulk in such a manner that it is
representative of that larger amount
Manual
Manual sampling
sampling

 material in motion rarely sampled manually,

hand cutters sometimes used for pulp streams
 normally done for stationary material e.g. in
tanks, trucks, stockpiles and stopped conveyor
belts
 Common sampling devices include the auger,
probe or tube sampler. Shovels or scoops may
also be used
Belt
Belt cut
cut sample
sample

 is taken to calculate the tonnage processed

at any give time
 A stopped belt presents the best opportunity
for manual sampling
 optimum increments are taken by stopping
the belt at frequent and regular intervals
 samples taken from within a sampling
frame covering an entire cross-section
of the material on the belt
Moisture
Moisture sampling
sampling

 met accounting requires accurate

knowledge of the dry solids
 Grab sampling is used for moisture

determination.
 This is the least accurate of the

common sampling method, but the

cheapest and most rapid.
Moisture
Moisture determination
determination

 Small quantities of material are

chosen at random from different
spots in the large bulk & mixed

 The samples are immediately

weighed wet and dried at <105°C to
drive off all hygroscopic water, and
then reweighed
moisture
moisture determination
determination

 The difference in weight represents

the moisture as shown below

% moisture = (wet wt – dry wt ) x

100
wet wt
Automatic
Automatic sampling
sampling

a mechanical sampling device

designed to suit the specific
circumstance, results in the lowest
possible sampling error
 All plant material is best sampled

while in motion, preferably in free

fall
Automatic
Automatic sampling
sampling

automatic samplers operate by moving a

collection device through the material as
it falls. It is important that;
 the face of the cutter is presented at right

angles to the stream

 the cutter covers the whole system

 the cutter moves at constant speed

 the cutter is large enough to pass the

sample
Sample
Sample preparation
preparation

 Filtering (dewatering)
 Drying of samples

 Crushing and grinding of samples

 Splitting of samples
Filtering
Filtering (dewatering)
(dewatering)

 Plant samples normally received for

analysis in the form of pulps
 Filtering is done i.e pressure or vacuum

 potential source of error is loss of solids

under the edges of filter paper

 adequate precautions in the design and

operation of the filter should be taken

Drying
Drying of
of samples
samples

 drying is effected in a well regulated

and ventilated oven, set at a
temperature of 105 to 110°C
 infra red heaters or hot plates may

be used for rapid control analysis

but not accurate work
Crushing
Crushing and
and grinding
grinding of
of
samples
samples

 usually samples from the plant do

not require crushing
 exceptions are waste rock and mill

feed samples which require

preliminary jaw crushing and
subsequent grinding
Sample
Sample crushing
crushing &
& grinding
grinding

 the errors that must be avoided are;

 loss of fines

cross-contamination from previous

samples
 contamination from grinding surfaces &

excessive heating of the sample

several types of grinding equipment used

e.g. mixer mill/pulveriser

Splitting
Splitting of
of samples
samples

 Techniques employed include;

 coning and quartering,

 table sampling and
 the Jones riffle.
Control
Control variables
variables

 Grade or assay value

 gives the mass of the wanted mineral

or metal in relation to the mass of a
stream

Grade = mass of wanted mineral in stream * 100

mass of stream
Control
Control variables
variables

 Recovery
 this is the percentage of the valuable

metal or mineral contained in the ore

that is recovered to the concentrate

Recovery = mass of mineral in concentrate *

100
mass of mineral in feed stream
control
control variables
variables

 mass pull is the mass % of feed

recovered to concentrate

mass pull = C * 100

F
grade
grade vs
vs recovery
recovery
G = 4/5 * 100 =
Key 80%
G = Grade R = 4/7 * 100 = 57%
Feed
R = Recovery
G = 7/23 * 100
= 30%

Grade

Recovery
table
table of
of shift
shift performance
performance

item mass/ grade metal distri

/ / b
tonne % tonne %
s s
Ni Cu Ni Cu Ni Cu Ni Cu
conc 60 4.5 2.1
0
tailing 950 0.1 1.9
8 0
s
feed 100 100
Slurry
Slurry streams
streams

 Pulp is made by mixing water and

dry solids
 Vp = Vs + Vw

It can be shown that;

Dilution
Dilution ratios
ratios in
in mass
mass balancing
balancing

 specific processes require different

water contents, e.g.;
 ball mills operate btwn 65 to 70%
solids by wt
 Flotation operations operate between
25 to 40% solids by wt
 Gravity concentration devices
between 55 to 70% solids
Dilution
Dilution ratios
ratios

 is the ratio of the weight of water to

the weight of the solids
dilution
dilution ratios
ratios

 Question
A cyclone is fed at the rate of 20tph
of dry solids. The cyclone feed
contains 30% solids, the u/f 50%
solids and the o/f 15% solids by
weight. Calculate the tonnage of
solids per hour in the underflow.
7.0
7.0 Froth
Froth flotation
flotation
Learning
Learning outcomes
outcomes

have a knowledge and

understanding of;

 the principles of flotation

 flotation chemicals and the purpose

thereof
 flotation machines

 factors affecting flotation practice

Introduction
Introduction

 Objectives

 Separation of minerals from gangue by

exploiting the differences in surface
chemistry
Principles
Principles

 Utilizes differences in
physical/chemical surface properties
of minerals
 Reagent addition used to accentuate

these differences
 Solids, reagents, water and air

(bubbles) mixed
Principles
Principles

 Valuable mineral recovered in froth

 Direct flotation or flotation

 Valuable mineral recovered to tailings

 Reverse flotation
Principles
Principles

 Hydrophobic particles attach to

bubbles and leave the system as
froth

 Hydrophilic particles leave with tails

Sulphide
Sulphide flotation
flotation

 PGE ores : non-selective (bulk sulphide

flotation)
 Base metal sulphide ores (Copper,

Nickel, Lead, Zinc, Molebdenum) :

selective (minimise contamination)
 Gold ores (gold associated with sulphide

minerals; microscopic particles or solid

solution): non-selective
Sulphide
Sulphide flotation
flotation ((PGE
PGE Reef
Reef
Mineralogy)
Mineralogy)
PGM ores

Base Metal Sulphide

(Fe, Cu, Ni)xSy
Gangue

10 m Platinum-group mineral
(PGM)
Sulphide
Sulphide flotation
flotation ((PGE
PGE Reef
Reef
Mineralogy)
Mineralogy)

Base Metal Sulphide

BMS (Fe, Cu, Ni)xSy
Great Dyke

Platinum-group mineral
(PGM)

Silicates Talc
Mechanism
Mechanism of
of flotation
flotation
Flotation
Flotation chemistry
chemistry
 Structure of water (Polar molecule)
Polar +

-
+ Hydrogen bonding

Oxygen +
-
+
Flotation
Flotation chemistry
chemistry

Mineral structure
 All minerals classified as polar or non-
polar
 Non-polar molecules : covalent molecules
held together by Van der Waals forces
 Non-polar molecules do not react with
polar water – hydrophobic
 Examples : talc, graphite, coal, diamond
- high natural flotabilities
Flotation
Flotation chemistry
chemistry

 Particle bubble attachment -

Nomenclature

 Hydrophobic surface repels water ‘prefer’

air environment - air bubbles attach
 Hydrophilic - repels air - ‘prefer’ water - no

attachment of air bubbles

 Flotation chemicals - render surface

hydrophobic
Flotation
Flotation Reagents
Reagents

 Collectors
 Frothers

 Activators

 Depressants

 pH modifiers
Collectors
Collectors

 are organic compounds which adsorb on

the mineral surface hindering them
hydrophobic or aerophilic

 they dissociate into ions in water or

may be non-ionising which are insoluble
and cover the mineral particle with a
thin film which renders it aerophilic.
Ionising
Ionising Collectors
Collectors

Types of collectors

Anionic Cationic
- negative polar - positive polar
group group
- xanthates - primary amine
(dithiocarbonates)
- dithiophosphates
Anionic
Anionic collectors
collectors

Sulphydryl collectors
- bivalent sulphur
S R-O S
R O C P

S- R’ - O S-
Xanthate
Dithiophophates
Dithiocarbonate
R – carbon chain (C3-
C12)
Anionic
Anionic collectors
collectors

Oxyhydryl collectors
- bivalent oxygen
O
R C

O-

Carboxylic
fatty acids
Cationic
Cationic collectors
collectors

Cationic collectors
- primary amine

R H
N
H H+

Primary amine
Other
Other flotation
flotation chemicals
chemicals

 Frother - improve the dispersion of fine

bubbles in the pulp and control
characteristics of the pulp

 Activators - increase selectivity and

enhances collector adsorption - CuSO4

 Depressants - retard or prevent

collector adsorption
Activation
Activation

 To improve selectivity and

collector adsorption
 CuSO - most common industry
4

example
 ZnS + Cu2+  CuS + Zn2+

Cu2+
Stronger interaction
with xanthate
Zn2+
Activation
Activation

 Activation

 bulk activation can be detrimental:

- reduces selectivity (base metal sulphides)

- activation of gangue minerals

- reduces grade
- reagent consumption
pH
pH modifiers
modifiers

 they control the pH of the system

 most collectors are stable in alkaline

conditions
 pH is increased by lime, soda ash,

caustic soda, ammonia etc and is

decreased by addition of sulphurous
acids
Frothers
Frothers

 Froth properties
 Bubble size
 Brittleness of froth

 Talc content

 water recovery
Frothers
Frothers
 Froth height
Froth height
Water
Water recovery
recovery
Air
Air

 is used to create aeration and

produce the froth
 Pulp is subjected to agitation and

aeration so as to maintain the

suspension and circulate it
 Volume of air introduced into the

pulp depends on the impellor speed

Other
Other factors
factors affecting
affecting flotation
flotation

 i. Agitation
 ii. Pulp level in cells
 iii. Mesh of grind
 iv. Pulp density
 v. Water quality
Types
Types of
of flotation
flotation cells
cells

Mechanical cells

Impellers
Mechanical
Mechanical cells
cells

 Mechanical cells

 agitator stirring
 self-aerated cells - 40 - 50 m3

 forced air cells - 100 -160 m3

 maximum lip loading - 1.5 t/h/m

 Mean bubble size: 1 - 1.5 mm

 Gas flow velocity: 1 - 1.6 cm/s

Pneumatic
Pneumatic machines
machines

 Pneumatic cells

 No mechanical stirring
 Diameter up to 4m

 Height up to 14m

 Mean bubble size : 1 - 1.5 mm

 Gas flow velocity: 1.5 - 2.2 cm/s

Flotation
Flotation circuits
circuits

 Flotation circuits often incorporate the

roughing, scavenging and cleaning
stages.

 Roughing- this is the removal of a rough

concentrate at the earliest stage of
treatment of the ground ore
Flotation
Flotation circuits
circuits

 Scavenging- done to recover slow

floating particles

 Cleaning- is the treatment of the

rough concentrate to improve its
quality
Flotation
Flotation circuit
circuit design
design

MF2 – configuration : mill - float – mill - float

- Remove liberated sulphides
- Prevent sliming of sulphides
- Recover PGMs before too much gangue

is liberated and milled fine

- Advantages for altered ores
Magnetic
Magnetic separation
separation

 Diamagnetism
 Paramagnetism

 Ferromagnetism
Drum
Drum separator
separator
Cross-belt
Cross-belt separator
separator
High
High tension
tension separation
separation
PLANT
PLANT VENTILATION
VENTILATION

 What is ventilation?
 Purpose of

 Ventilation systems

 Components of the system

Plant
Plant safety
safety

SAFETY

 SAFETY is a state of mind and

behavioral patterns relative to one’s
surroundings and occupational
hazards
Five
Five point
point Safety
Safety system
system ::

1) Check entrance to place of work

2) Are work place and equipment in good
order?
3) Are men working safely?
4) Do an act of safety.
5) Can and will men continue to work
safely.
Cardinal
Cardinal Rules
Rules
1) Do not work in areas that have not
been made safe.
2) Do not operate defective mobile
equipment.
3) Do not work on energized and
moving machinery without locking out.
4) Do not work in confined space or on
heights without safety chains.
Cardinal
Cardinal Rules
Rules

5) Do not pollute the environment (avoid

pollution of water, air, and land).

6) All accidents/ incidents must be

reported /investigated within 24 hrs.

7) All unsafe work practices or conditions

must be stopped and or corrected.
H.I.R.A
H.I.R.A

 Hazard
 Identification

 Risk

 Assessment
Hazard
Hazard

 a hazard can be defined as anything

that has the potential to cause harm,
damage, injury or death.
Classification
Classification of
of Hazards
Hazards

1. Physical hazards – heat stroke, noise,

vibration.
2. Chemical hazards – acids, heavy
metals e.g. Pb, Hg and drugs.
3. Mechanical hazards – unguarded
machinery.
4. Biological hazards – hazards that affect
the physical body i.e. fungi, bacteria,
and viruses.
Hazards
Hazards

5. Electrical hazards – bare/naked live electrical

wires, substandard electrical installations i.e. no
earth bonding.
6. Ergonomic hazards – man/machinery
relationship.
7. Physiological hazards – repetition of body
movements (R.S.I), heavy manual work
8. Environmental hazards
9. Psycho-social hazards – job is too difficult, too
much or too little responsibility, excessive hours,
stress.
Methods
Methods of
of Hazard
Hazard identification
identification

 Inspection/ Audits.
 Measurements e.g. noise, fumes,

toxins.
 Samples for dust or chemicals.

 Accident statistics.
Ways
Ways of
of putting
putting down
down systems
systems of
of
Hazard
Hazard Identification
Identification

 Training of all personnel at all levels.

 Develop effective communication

systems.
 Review all existing hazard identification

procedures.
 Record all incidents and near misses.

 Develop a system that provides a

follow up of results obtained.

Accident
Accident

 is an uncontrolled/unplanned event that results in

injury, damage or death.
Accident
Accident triangle
triangle

Apex

fatality

serious minor accident

property damage

incident/near miss

Base

Base
Hazard
Hazard management
management

 Hazards should be managed at the

source (90%).
 Hazards can also be managed along

the way.
 Hazards are managed by the worker

by means of personal protective

equipment ppe.
Hazard
Hazard management
management

1. Eliminate

2. Substitute
3. Re-design

4. Separate
5. Administrate

6. PPE
House
House keeping
keeping

 Good housekeeping fulfills 5

important functions , which are not
only to the advantage of the worker
but also to the advantage of the
employer.
Good
Good Housekeeping
Housekeeping

 Saves time taken up by searching for

goods , articles and tools.
 . Hazards are easily identified and

eliminated through good housekeeping.

 . Injuries from tripping , abrasion , cuts

and bruises are prevented because

passages at work place are free of
crowded materials.
Good
Good Housekeeping
Housekeeping

 Space is saved if articles are neatly

packed and correctly stored.
 Fire risk is diminished when

provision is made for the correct

placing of the right type of refuse
bins and store areas comply with
good storage practices.
Safety
Safety

 Safety devices & Precautions in the

plant