Introduction to NDT

• Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a technique that evaluates materials,

components, and systems without causing any damage or disruption.
• These innovative techniques are key to maintaining
• Safety
• Reliability
• Efficiency
• Examples of industries using NDT
• Aerospace
• Construction
• Manufacturing
• Energy
NDT methods

• Visual testing
• The most basic NDT method.
• Involves directly inspecting a component using the naked eye or
optical aids.
• It is often the first step before applying other NDT methods.
• Merits

• Inexpensive

• Little to no equipment needed

• Easy to train

• Minimum Part Preparation

• Demerits

• Surface indications only

• Generally only able to detect large flaws

• Possible misinterpretation of flaws

• Radiographic Testing
• Uses X-rays or gamma rays to create images of the internal structure
of a component.
• It is primarily used to inspect castings, weldments, and mechanical
assemblies.
• Merits
• RT is highly effective in detecting defects such as porosity, cracks, and
inclusions.
• It provides detailed and high-resolution images of the internal structure,
allowing for precise evaluation of the material's condition.
• RT can be used on various materials, including metals, ceramics, and polymers.
• Demerits
• RT involves exposure to ionizing radiation, which poses health risks to operators
and requires strict safety measures to be in place.
• RT is time-consuming and may be limited in its application to certain materials
due to their density or thickness.
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• Employs high-frequency sound waves to detect surface and
subsurface discontinuities.
• It is widely used for inspecting pressure vessels, machinery, and
bridges.
• Merits
• UT can detect defects such as cracks, voids, and inclusions with high accuracy.
• It is a versatile technique that can be used on a wide range of materials,
including metals, composites, and plastics.
• UT is also relatively quick and cost-effective compared to other NDT methods.
• Demerits
• It requires skilled operators to perform the tests accurately.
• The results may be influenced by factors such as material properties, surface
finish, and test conditions.
• Liquid Penetration Testing (LPT)
• It relies on the capillary action of a liquid to detect surface-breaking
defects in materials.
• Reveals surface discontinuities in solid and nonporous materials.
• A liquid penetrant is applied to the surface, which seeps into cracks
and cavities, making them visible under ultraviolet or visible light.
• Merits
• It is simple, versatile, and can be used on a wide range of materials, including
metals, plastics, and ceramics.
• It can detect defects such as cracks, porosity, and inclusions with high
sensitivity.
• PT is also relatively easy to perform and does not require complex equipment.
• Demerits
• PT is limited to surface defects and may not be suitable for detecting internal
flaws in materials.
• It also relies on good surface cleanliness and may not be effective on rough or
porous surfaces.
• Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
• Used to locate surface and near-surface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials.
• It involves magnetizing the part and applying ferromagnetic particles
to reveal defects.
• Merits
• MT is fast, reliable, and cost-effective, making it suitable for inspecting welds,
castings, and forgings.
• It can detect defects such as cracks, laps, and seams in materials.
• MT does not require extensive surface preparation and can be used in various
environments.
• Demerits
• MT is limited to ferromagnetic materials and may not be suitable for non-
magnetic materials.
• It also requires close contact with the material being inspected, which can be
a challenge in certain applications.
• Eddy current testing (ET)
• It uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in conductive
materials.
• It is commonly used in aircraft maintenance and the inspection of
thin-wall tubing.
• Merits
• It is sensitive to surface defects. Can detect defects upto 0.5mm in
length under favourable conditions.
• It has the ability to detect defects in multi-layer structures (up to
about 14 layers), without interference from the planar interfaces.
• It can be automated. Relatively uniform parts can be inspected quickly
and reliably using automated or semi-automated equipment, e.g.
wheels, boiler tubes and aero-engine disks.
• Little pre-cleaning required thus reducing preparation time.
• It is portable. Test equipment is very small and light, some of the latest
equipment weighing less than 2kg.
• Demerits
• It is very susceptible to magnetic permeability changes especially in
ferromagnetic materials. This makes testing difficult.
• It is effective only on conductive materials.
• It will not detect defects parallel to surface. If a planar defect does not
cross or interfere with the current then the defect will not be detected.
• It is not suitable for large areas and/or complex geometries. Large
area scanning can be accomplished, but needs the aid of some type of
area scanning device and a computer, both of which are expensive.
• The more complex the geometry becomes, the more difficult it is to
differentiate defect signals from geometry effect signals.
• It requires signal interpretation. Due to the many factors which affect
eddy currents, careful interpretation of signals is needed to
distinguish between relevant and non-relevant indications.
• No permanent record (unless automated).
• Acoustic emission testing
• Acoustic Emission Testing (AET) is a non-destructive testing method
that is used to analyse emitted sound waves caused by defects or
discontinuities.
• Acoustic emissions happen when a material is under
stress, either from holding a heavy load or from
extremes of temperature.
• In large-sized structures, several sensors are placed on the material
surface, leaving a space of some metres in between. The information
collected by each of the sensors is monitored through a computer.
• If defects exist in some areas, the signal character from the sensor attached nearest to
the discontinuity appears in a different way.
• By analysing the discontinuity’s indications, it is possible to ascertain the defect position.
• Applications
• Airplane longevity estimation
• Bridge inspections
• Concrete corrosion monitoring
• Mine wall stability inspections
• Pressure vessel inspections
• Structural integrity inspections
• Wind turbine inspections
• Merits
• In-service continuous monitoring is possible
• Entire structures can be monitored from various locations
• Increased sensitivity compared to conventional testing methods
• Shorter testing time than other NDT techniques
• It can be used in hazardous environments
• Real time monitoring
• Demerits
• It’s usefulness is generally limited to locating a defect,
not describing it in detail—that is, commercial acoustic
testing systems can only provide qualitative estimations
for the extent of damage found.
• It cannot detect defects that do not change over time
(i.e., defects that don’t move or grow)
• It can be hard to use—AE signals can be very weak,
making noise reduction and signal discrimination crucial
for accurate readings.
• Infrared thermography
• Thermographic inspections, also known as thermography testing or infrared
thermography, use the principles of infrared emissions to identify
temperature variations on surfaces.
• These differences can indicate potential flaws in construction or signs of
early damage that require addressing.
• Thermography comes from the physics concept that everything that exists
on earth produces infrared or thermal radiation.
• A thermographic camera or imager identifies this radiation and produces
images that show the temperature variations onto a thermogram, which is a
visual representation of the information on infrared radiation gathered.
• Thermographic measurements could indicate worn
insulation, damaged electrical connections, leaking
pipes or energy loss locations.
• Merits
• Allows for inspection of areas that are difficult to access
and also allows the examination of hazardous areas
from a distance without putting the inspector at risk.
• Does not require downtime.
• Works in dimly lit areas.
• Demerits
• The equipment can be expensive.
• The results may not be as precise as other NDT options.
• The non-contact nature of thermography makes results
less accurate than contact options.
• Testing using thermographic cameras only shows the
results of surface temperatures. Unless internal
components impact the surface temperature of a piece
of equipment, thermographic testing won’t identify
possible issues.
Material characterization
• Characterization, when used in materials science, refers to the broad and
general process by which a material's structure and properties are probed
and measured.
• The impulse excitation technique (IET) is a non-destructive material
characterization technique to determine the elastic properties and internal
friction of a material of interest.
• It measures the resonant frequencies in order to calculate the Young's
modulus, shear modulus, Poisson's ratio and internal friction of predefined
shapes like rectangular bars, cylindrical rods and disc shaped samples.
• The measurements can be performed at room temperature or at elevated
temperatures (up to 1700 °C) under different atmospheres.
• The measurement principle is based on tapping the sample with
a small projectile and recording the induced vibration signal with
a piezoelectric sensor, microphone, laser
vibrometer or accelerometer.
• To optimize the results a microphone or a laser vibrometer can
be used as there is no contact between the test-piece and the
sensor. Laser vibrometers are preferred to measure signals in
vacuum.
• Afterwards, the acquired vibration signal in the time domain is
converted to the frequency domain by a fast Fourier
transformation.
• For predefined shapes like rectangular bars, discs, rods and
grinding wheels, dedicated software calculates the sample's
elastic properties using the sample dimensions, weight and
resonant frequency.
• History of NDT
• Non-destructive Testing has its roots dating back to the early 1900s
when the first NDT method, radiography, was developed.
• Radiography was initially used to inspect the internal structure of
metal castings, allowing engineers to detect any hidden defects in the
casting.
• Radiography uses X-rays or gamma rays to create an image of the
internal structure of an object.
• In the 1920s, Ultrasonic Testing was developed as a way to detect
internal defects in metal components.
• This method uses high-frequency sound waves to detect
inconsistencies and defects in materials.
• The method is particularly useful for detecting cracks, voids, and
other internal defects in metals, plastics, and composites.
• Magnetic Particle Testing, another NDT method, was
developed in the 1930s.

• This method uses a magnetic field to detect surface

and near-surface defects in ferromagnetic materials.

• Magnetic particle testing is particularly useful for

detecting cracks, porosity, and other surface defects in
welds, castings, and forgings.
• During the 1940s, liquid penetrant testing was developed as a way to
detect surface-breaking defects in a material.
• This method uses a liquid to detect defects on the surface of a
material.
• The 1950s saw the development of several other NDT methods,
including eddy current testing and acoustic emission testing.

• Eddy current testing uses electromagnetic fields to detect defects in

conductive materials.

• This method is particularly useful for detecting defects in aircraft

components, such as jet engine blades and landing gear.
• Acoustic Emission Testing, on the other hand, uses sound waves to
detect changes in a material that may indicate a defect or weakness.
• It was first used in the early 1980s as a way for
inspectors to test polymer matrix composites (PMCs).

• This method is particularly useful for detecting cracks and other

defects in pressure vessels and pipelines.
• In the 1960s, the use of computers and digital
technology began to be applied to NDT, improving the
accuracy and efficiency of NDT methods.

• Digital radiography, for example, allows engineers to

create high-resolution images of the internal structure
of an object, which can be manipulated and analyzed
using computer software.
• Computer-aided ultrasonic testing allows engineers to automate the
testing process, reducing the risk of human error and improving the
accuracy of the results.
• NDT is considered a crucial tool in the field of quality control and
maintenance, as it allows for the early detection of defects and
potential failures, helping to ensure the safety and reliability of
equipment and structures.
NDT vs DT
DT NDT
Measurements are direct and reliable. Measurements are indirect and reliability needs to be
verified.

Usually Quantitative measurements. Usually Qualitative measurements but measurements

can also be done quantitatively.

Correlation between test measurements and material Correlation between test measurements and material
properties is direct. properties is not direct. Hence skilled judement is
required to interpret the indications.

Tests are not made on objects directly. Hence Tests are made directly on actual compnents.
correlation between sample specimen and the actual
object needs to be proved.

A single test may measure only one or a few Many NDT methods can be applied on the same part
properties. and hence many or all properties of interest can be
measured.
DT NDT

Inservice testing is not possible. Inservice testing is possible.

Preparation of the test specimen is costly. Very little preparation is needed.

Testing takes time. Most test methods are rapid.

Measurement of properties over a cumulative period Measurement of properties over period of time is
of time not readily possible. possible.
Non Destructive Evaluation
(NDE)
• It deals with making quantitative measurements of defects.
• In addition to locating a defect, NDE also measures the crack size,
shape, and orientation.
• These measurements are used to find fracture toughness, which in
turn can be used to predict the component's remaining life.
• https://www.txndt.com/safety-section/visual-inspection
• https://www.flyability.com/blog/acoustic-emission-testing