Theories of motivation

• Motivating people is the process of getting

people to move in the direction you want them
to go
• Psychological process that arouse and direct
goal directed behavior
• The whole process of motivation rest on
psychological setting of people
• To explain these psychological process
researchers has proposed two categories;
i. Content motivation theories
Identify internal factors that influence
motivation
i. Process motivation theories
Identify the process by which internal factors
and cognition influence motivation
 Content motivational theories
 Content motivation theories revolve around
the notion that motivation is influenced by
employees needs
 Needs –physiological or psychological
deficiencies that arouse behavior
 Content theories of motivation are
categorized in the following categories
i. Maslow's hierarchy of needs
ii. Aldefer’s ERG theory
iii. McClelland’s need theory
iv. Herzberg’s motivator hygiene theory(Job
satisfaction)
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
In 1943 Abraham Maslow published his
famous need hierarch theory
Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs theory states
that behavior is motivated by unsatisfied
needs
He proposed that motivation is function of
five steps;
Physiological needs
 Having enough air, food, clothes, water and shelter to survive
Safety needs
 After physiological need are met safety needs take over and dominates the
behavior
 Job security, safe working environment, insurance policies, grievances
procedure, saving accounts, health wellbeing, safety net against
unpredictable etc
Social needs (love)
 After safety needs are met, social needs dominates behavior
 Involve emotional based relationships in general like
 Social interaction, acceptance, to love and be loved, seeking friendship,
intimacy etc
 The absence of this needs causes loneliness, social anxiety and depression
Self esteem
 Also known as belonging need
 Esteem presents the normal human desire to be
accepted and valued by others
 People need to engage themselves and gain
recognition and have an activity that gives them
sense of contribution to feel accepted and valued
 Imbalances at this level may cause low self
esteem or an inferior complex
Maslow noted two version of esteem needs;
• Lower self esteem
 People with lower esteem need respect from
others, the need for recognition, fame prestige
and attention
• High self esteem
 People with high self esteem need strength,
competence, self confidence, mastery
independence and freedom
Self actualization
Maximization of one’s potential
 Herzberg’s motivator hygiene theory(Job satisfaction)

 I is based on a landmark study in which he interview 203

accountants and engineers to identify the factors responsible for
job satisfaction and dissatisfaction

 Fredrick Herzberg’ 1959 found two clusters associated to job

satisfaction and dissatisfaction these include;
Hygiene factors
 Related factors that can fulfill basic needs and prevents job
satisfaction
 Ie policy, administration, technical supervision, salary,
interpersonal with their supervisors and working condition
 Herzberg’s labeled these factors they are not motivational
Motivational factors
Related factors that can lead to job
satisfaction and motivate people
I.e. achievement, recognition, characteristic
of the work, responsibility and advancement
Herzberg’s labeled these factors to be
motivational
• In Herzberg's hygiene motivator theory,
satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not
opposite
• Instead the opposite of job satisfaction is
considered “no job satisfaction” and opposite
of job dissatisfaction is considered “no
Dissatisfaction”
• It is simply the absence of both
• Example
An employee with good supervision, good pay
and nice working condition but tedious and
unchallenging task that offer little chance of
advancement will lack both dissatisfaction and
satisfaction
• This theory generated mixed feeling among
scholars
• Many do not agree with Herzberg's two factor
theory that hygiene factors are unrelated to
job satisfaction
• Benefits, compensation, working environment,
job security and flexibility to balance work life
issues proved to be powerful motivators
 ALDEFER’S ERG THEORY
• Clayton aldefer developed an alternative
theory of human needs in the late 1960s
• Aldefer’s theory differs from Maslow's
hierarchy of need in three major aspects;
First behavior is explained in smaller set of
core needs;
Existence needs; desire for physiological and
materialistic wellbeing
Related needs; desire to have meaningful
relationship with others
Growth needs; desire to grow as human needs
and use one’s ability to their fullest

Second difference from Maslow theory is that

ERG theory does not assume that needs are
related in hierarchy but believes that more than
one need can be activated at a time
• Third; ERG theory states that that frustration
of higher order needs can influence the desire
for lower order needs
• Example if employees are dissatisfied with
quality of relationship with their colleague
they may demand higher pay or better
benefits (Existence)
Read on its managerial implication
 McClelland’s need theory
• Developed by David McClelland in 1940s
• He developed three needs;
i. Needs for achievement
ii. Needs for affiliation
iii. Need for power
 Process Theories of Motivation
 they are based on the premise that motivation
is a function of employees’ perceptions,
thoughts, and beliefs
 They include;
Adam’s equity theory
Vroom’s expectancy theory
Goal setting theory
 Adams’s Equity Theory of Motivation
• Developed by Psychologist Stacy Adams
• Equity theory is a model of motivation that
explains how people strive for fairness and
justice in social exchanges or give-and-take
relationships
• As a process theory of motivation, equity
theory explains how an individual’s motivation
to behave in a certain way is fueled by feelings
of inequity or a lack of justice
• Central to understanding Adams’s equity
theory of motivation is an awareness of key
components;
The individual–organization exchange
relationship.
• This relationship is pivotal in the formation of
employees’ perceptions of equity and
inequity.
• Adams points out that two primary components are
involved in the employee–employer exchange, inputs and
outcomes.
• An employee’s inputs, for which he or she expects a just
return, include
 Education
 training,
 skills,
 creativity,
 seniority,
 age,
personality traits,
effort expended,
personal appearance.
 On the outcome side of the exchange, the
organization provides such things as
pay/bonuses
fringe benefits
challenging assignments, job security,
promotions
status symbols
participation in important decisions.
 Negative and Positive Inequity
• On the job, feelings of inequity revolve around
a person’s evaluation of whether he or she
receives adequate rewards to compensate for
his or her contributive inputs.
• People perform these evaluations by
comparing the perceived fairness of their
employment exchange to that of relevant
others
 People tend to compare themselves to other
individuals with whom they have close
interpersonalties
 —such as friends—or to similar others—such
as people performing the same job or
individuals of the same gender or educational
level—rather than dissimilar others
 There are Three different equity relationships;
equity,
Negative inequity,
Positive inequity.
 Equity exists for an individual when his or her ratio of perceived
outcomes to inputs is equal to the ratio of outcomes to inputs for a
relevant coworker
• Because equity is based on comparing ratios of outcomes to inputs.
• Inequities typically come about as a result of perceived or actual
unfair treatment relative to other employees within the
organization, and can include such things as internal and external
pay discrepancies, unfair decision-making, and poor career
development opportunities.
• inequity will not necessarily be perceived just because someone else
receives greater rewards.
• If the other person’s additional outcomes are due to his or her
greater inputs, a sense of equity may still exist
• If the comparison person enjoys greater
outcomes for similar inputs, negative inequity
will be perceived
• a person will experience positive inequity
when his or her outcome to input ratio is
greater than that of a relevant coworker
• Therefore;
Negative inequity is the Comparison in which
another person receives greater outcomes for
similar inputs.
Positive inequity is the Comparison in which
another person receives lesser outcomes for
similar inputs
 Implication
 Equity theory has at least six important practical
implications.
 First, research on equity theory emphasizes the
need for managers to pay attention to employees’
perceptions of what is fair and equitable.
 No matter how fair management thinks the
organization’s policies, procedures, and reward
system are, each employee’s perception of the
equity of those factors is what counts.
• Second, managers benefit by allowing
employees to participate in making decisions
about important work outcomes.
• In general, employees’ perceptions of
procedural justice are enhanced when they
have a voice in the decision-making process.
• Managers are encouraged to seek employee
input on organizational changes that are likely
to impact the workforce.
• Third, employees should be given the
opportunity to appeal decisions that affect
their welfare.
• Fourth managers can promote cooperation
and teamwork among group members by
treating them equitably
• Fifth, employees’ perceptions of justice are
strongly influenced by the leadership behavior
exhibited by their managers
• Finally, managers need to pay attention to the
organization’s climate for justice.
• For example, an organization’s climate for
justice was found to significantly influence
employees’ organizational commitment and
job satisfaction
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy
 Belief that effort leads to a specific level of
performance.
• An expectancy, according to Vroom’s terminology,
represents an individual’s belief that a particular
degree of effort will be followed by a particular level
of performance.
• In other words, it is an effort→performance
expectation.
.
 Expectancy theory holds that people are motivated to
behave in ways that produce desired combinations of
expected outcomes.
 Generally, expectancy theory can be used to predict
motivation and behavior in any situation in which a choice
between two or more alternatives must be made.
 For instance, it can be used to predict whether to quit or
stay at a job; whether to exert substantial or minimal
effort at a task; and whether to major in management,
finance, marketing, psychology, or communication
 Victor Vroom formulated a mathematical model of
expectancy in his 1964 book Work and Motivation.
 Vroom’s theory has been summarized as follows:
• The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectancy that the
act will be followed by a given consequence (or
outcome) and on the value or attractiveness of
that consequence (or outcome) to the actor.
• Motivation, according to Vroom, boils down to
the decision of how much effort to exert in a
specific task situation.
• This choice is based on a two-stage sequence
• of expectations ;
• (effort→performance and
performance→outcome).
• First, motivation is affected by an individual’s
expectation that a certain level of effort will
produce the intended performance goal.
• For example, if you do not believe increasing the
amount of time you spend studying will significantly
raise your grade on an exam, you probably will not
study any harder than usual.
• Motivation also is influenced by the employee’s
perceived chances of getting various outcomes as a
result of accomplishing his or her performance goal.
• Finally, individuals are motivated to the extent
that they value the outcomes received.
• Vroom used a mathematical equation to
integrate the above concepts into a predictive
model of motivational force or strength.
• For our purposes, however, it is sufficient to
define and explain the three key concepts
within Vroom’s model— expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence.
 Expectancy
• An expectancy, according to Vroom’s
terminology, represents an individual’s belief
that a particular degree of effort will be
followed by a particular level of performance.
• In other words, it is an effort→performance
expectation.
 Instrumentality
• An instrumentality is a
performance→outcome perception. It
represents a person’s belief that a particular
outcome is contingent on accomplishing a
specific level of performance.
• Performance is instrumental when it leads to
something else.
• For example,passing exams is instrumental to
graduating from college.
 Valence
• As Vroom used the term, valence refers to the positive
or negative value people place on outcomes.
• Valence mirrors our personal preferences.
• For example, most employees have a positive valence
for receiving additional money or recognition.
• In contrast, job stress and being laid off would likely
result in negative valence for most individuals.
• In Vroom’s expectancy model, outcomes refer to
different consequences that are contingent on
performance, such as pay, promotions, or recognition
 Motivation through Goal Setting
 Edwin locke
• Goal; “what an individual is trying to accomplish; it is
the object or aim of an action.
• Regardless of the nature of their specific achievements,
successful people tend to have one thing in common.
• Their lives are goal oriented
• Goal-setting theory explains how the simple behavior
of setting goals activates a powerful motivational
process that leads to sustained, high performance.
 How Does Goal Setting Work?
 Goals Direct Attention
 Goals Regulate Effort
 Goals Increase Persistence
• Remember dreams without goals are just
dreams and ultimately fuel disappointments
• Have dreams but have goals
• To achieve these goals you must apply;
• Discipline and consistence
• Hard works works
• The most selfish thing you can do is helping
others
• Formular for success
• Hard work
• Focus
• Commitment
• Persistence
• Perseverance
• Sacrifice
• Believing in yourself
 Motivating Employees through
Job Design
• Job design is used when a manager suspects
that the type of work an employee performs
or characteristics of the work environment are
causing motivational problems.
 How does it work
Job enlargement
• Putting more variety into a job.
Job rotation
• Moving employees from one specialized job to
another
• Rather than performing only one job, workers
are trained and given the opportunity to
perform two or more separate jobs on a
rotating basis
• Job enrichment
• Building achievement,recognition,stimulating
work,responsibility, and advancement into a
job