GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Unit I
Soil Classification and Compaction
 Definition of Soil

It is defined as
unconsolidated material
composed of solid particles
produced by
mechanical and chemical
disintegration of rocks
 Soil Mechanics

Soil Mechanics is the

Application of
laws of mechanics and hydraulics
to
Engineering problems
Dealing with soil
 Origin of Soil
Soil is formed by weathering of rocks
due to
mechanical disintegration (or) chemical
decomposition;
when
the rock surface is exposed to atmosphere
for long duration.
 Types of Soil
Soil can be classified into two broad categories:

1.Residual Soil
2.Transported Soil
 Residual soils
If the soil deposited at the place of its formation
just near (or) above parent rock,
it is known as residual soil.
The properties of the residual soil resembles
that of the parent rock in general

The depth of residual soils varies

from 5 to 20 m.
 (2) Transported soils
Soil transported from the origin called transported soil.

soil has been deposited at a place

away from the place of origin
by various transporting agents
such as air, water and ice or snow
The engineering properties of transported soil at a
place of deposition are entirely different from
the properties of the parent rock
Most of the soil deposits are transported soil only.
Classification of Transported Soil

Alluvial Soil
Aeolian Soil
Glaciers deposit
Marine
Deposit
Colluvial soils
 Alluvial Soil
• Running water carries large quantities of soil
either in suspension (or) by rolling on a long bed.
• Water erodes hills and deposits soils in the
valleys.
• Deposits made in lakes are called as lacustrine
deposits
• Deposits made when the flowing water carries
soil to ocean is called marine deposits
 Aeolian Soil
A type of soil that is transported from one place to
another by the wind called Aeolian soil

It consist primarily of
sand or silt-sized particles.
The particles size of the soil depends
upon the velocity of wind
The finer particles are carried
far away from the origin
 Marine deposits:
These are mainly confined on
a long a narrow belt near the coast,
These are thick layers of sand above deep deposits
of soft marine clays
These deposits have very low shearing strength and
are highly compressible.
It contain a large amount of organic matter.
these are softly and highly plastic
 Glaciers Deposits
•
when annual snowfall is greater than snow melt
then Snow accumulates along with soil
it compresses into ice and begins to flow during summer
 Colluvial soils

Under the influence of gravity

Solid particles are removed from the mountains top

and

get accumulated at the base of the steep slopes.

The soils thus formed are stony and are never stratified.
 Different types of soils:
1. Bentonitte:
It is a type of clay with
very high percentage of clay mineral montmorilonitte.
It results from decomposition of volcanic ash.

2. Clay:
It consists of microscopic and sub microscopic particles
The soil size is less than 0.002mm
3. Sand:
I t is a coarse grained soil having particles size
between 0.075 to 4.75mm. The particles are visible in
eye
4. Silt:
It is fine graded sand particles
size from 0.002 -0.0075mm.
The particles are not visible
through eyes.
5. Gravel:
Coarse soil of size from 4.75
to 80mm
6. Cobbles:
These are large size particles
in range of size

80 to 300mm
7. Kankar:
Impure form of limestone, it
 Cohesive soils:
Soil which absorbs water and having particles
attraction
such that

it deforms plastically at varying water content

are known as cohesive soil
Example: clay sand, plastic silt and clay.
 cohesion less soils
The soil composed of bulky grains are cohesive
less soils

Its plasticity effects is insignificant

Example: non plastic silt and sand gravel
 Three-phase System

Soils can be classified as

partially saturated (with both air and water present),
fully saturated (no air content)
perfectly dry (no water content).
In a saturated soil or a dry soil,
the three-phase system thus reduces to two phases
only, as shown.
 Phase Relations of Soil
Symbols for Phase Relations of soils
 Phase Relations of Soil
Symbols for Phase Relations of soils
 Phase Relations of Soil
Symbols for Phase Relations of soils
Void ratio in terms of porosity
Porosity in terms of Void ratio
 Memorize relationships

Se  s
(Se  G )
  1 s w

wG e

e
n  
 1  1
e d
w
 Example 1:
•In its natural state, a moist soil has a total volume of 9344.56 cm3 and a mass
18.11 kg. The oven-dry mass of soil is 15.67 kg. If Gs = 2.67, calculate the
moisture content, moist unit weight, void ratio and degree of saturation.

3475.66 cm3

2.44 kg 2440cm3
18.11 kg 9344.56 cm3

15.67 kg 5868.9 cm3

Example 1
SOLVED PROBLEMS
A cylindrical specimen of moist clay has a diameter of 38
mm, height of 76 mm and mass of 174.2grams. After
drying in the oven at 105oC for about 24 hours, the mass is
reduced to
148.4 grams. Find the dry density, bulk density and water
content of the clay. Assuming the specific gravity of the
soil
grains as 2.71; find the void ratio and the degree of
saturation. Solution:
Volume of the specimen = V = π (1.9)2(7.6) = 86.2 cm3

Wet Soil Mass = M b= 174.2

Mass of Water in the Soil = Mb - Ms = 174.2-148.4 = 25.8 g

Dry Density = ρd = Ms / V = 148.4/86.2 = 1.722 g/cm3

Bulk Density = ρb = Mb / V = 174.2/86.2 = 2.021 g/cm3

Water content = w = Mass of Water / Mass of Dry Soil =

Mw/Ms = 25.8 / 148.4 = 0.174 = 17.4%

e = Void ratio =

Se = wG; ∴
[ G ρw / ρd] – 1 = [2.71X 1 /1.722] = 0.574

S= Degree of saturation =
wG/e = [0.174X 2.71] / 0.574 = 0.821 or 82.1%
Field density testing on a soil sample has shown bulk density of a
compacted road base to be 2.06 t/m3 with water content of 11.6%.
Specific gravity of the soil grains is 2.69. Calculate the dry density,
porosity, void ratio and degree of saturation.

Solution:
Given Specific gravity of soil sample = G = 2.69

Water content = w = 11.6% or = 0.116

Bulk density of road base = ρb = 2.06 t /m3 = 2.06 g / cm3

Ρd = Dry density of soil = ρb / [ 1+ w] = 2.06 / 1+ 0.116 = 1.846 g /

cm3

e = Void ratio = [G ρw / ρd] – 1 = [2.69X 1 /1.846] -1 = 0.457

S= Degree of saturation =
wG /e = [0.116 X 2.69] / 0.457 = 0.6651 = 66.51%
Soil Classification
Classification of soil is the
separation of soil into
classes or groups
of each
having
similar characteristics and
similar behaviour.
 IS CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

COBBL BOUL GRAVE SAND SILT CLAY

ES DERS L

>300 300-80 80-4.75 4.75- 0.075- <0.002

0.075 0.002
 Methods to Determine Particle Size Distribution

• Sieving methods – soil particles 

0.05 mm (sand fraction) we use
Sieving methods.
• Sedimentation methods
– Pipette
– Hydrometer
– X-ray attenuation

• Particle counting methods

– Light, SEM Microscopy

– Coulter method
• Laser/Light diffraction methods
 Particle Size Distribution
• Wet sieving is carried out for separating fine
grains from coarse grains by washing the soil
specimen on a 75 micron sieve mesh.
 Dry sieve analysis
• It is carried out on particles coarser than 75 micron.
• Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken
through a set of sieves of descending size.
• The weight retained in each sieve is measured.
• The cumulative percentage quantities finer than
the sieve sizes (passing each given sieve size) are
then determined.
• The resulting data is presented as a distribution
curve with
• grain size along x-axis (log scale) and
• percentage passing along y-axis (arithmetic
scale).
 Sieving Methods
For particles  0.05
mm (sand fraction) we
apply SIEVING
methods.
Results are expressed as
particle diameters

Note - particles are

rarely spherical, hence
these diameters should
be regarded as effective
diameters based on
sieve opening size.

Sieve Shaker
Weight of soil taken for Dry sieve analysis was 500g. The weight retained on different sieve are as
follows. Classify the soil.

Sieve No Size of Weight of Cumulative

IS soil retained % Retained % Retained % Finer
Designation particle g g
mm
4.75 mm 4.75

2 mm 2

1 mm 1

600 micron 0. 600

425 micron 0.425

212 micron 0.212

150 micron 0.150

75 micron 0.075
 • 5kN of soil sample was taken for sieve
analysis. The weight of soil retained on each
sieve is as follows. Classify the soil.

SIEVE 4.75 2.36 1.0 425 µ 150 µ 75 µ

SIZE IN
MM
WEIGHT 12 18 950 933 1338 895
RETAINE
D IN N
Grain-Size Distribution Curve
Grading Characteristics
Cu < 2 are uniform size as Cc 1-3
Cu < 4 are well graded sand as Cc 1-3
Cu < 6 are well graded gravel as Cc 1-3
Cu and Cc not meet the above
requirements are classified as gap graded
Particle-Size Diagram
Curve A - a poorly-graded medium SAND

Curve B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. having equal amounts of gravel and sand)

Curve C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND

Curve D - a sandy SILT

Curve E - a silty CLAY (i.e. having little amount of sand)

 Consistency

Consistency is a term used to describe the

degree of firmness of fine-grained soils (silt and clay).

The consistency of fine grained soils is

expressed qualitatively by

such terms as
very soft , soft, stiff, very stiff and hard.

83
 Atterberg Limits:

These are water contents at certain limiting or critical stages in soil

behavior. These limits are:

Liquid Limit (LL):

The water content, in percent, at the point of transition from plastic

to liquid state

Or

The minimum moisture content at which

soil begins to behave as a liquid and begins to flow
 Plastic Limit (PL):
The water content, in percent,
at the point of transition
from semisolid to plastic state.

Or

the moisture content at which

soil begins to behave as a
plastic material
 Shrinkage Limit (SL):
The water content, in percent,
at the point of transition
from solid to semisolid state

Or

The moisture content at which

no further volume change occurs
with further reduction in moisture
content
STAGES OF CONSISTENCY
88
 Liquid limit (LL) determination

The water content required

to close a distance of ½ inch
(12.7 mm)
along the bottom of the groove
after 25 blows is
defined as the Liquid Limit.
70
71
 Liquid Limit Test:
Take about 120g of the given soil sieved through 425 micron
sieve and
mix it thoroughly with distilled water to form a uniform
paste.
The amount of water to be added shall be such, so as to
require 30 to 35 Blows of the cup
to cause the required closure of the groove.

Place a small amount of soil to the correct depth of the

grooving tool, well centred in the cup with respect to the
hinge.
Smooth the surface of the soil pat carefully, and
using the grooving tool, cut a clean straight groove that
completely separates the soil pat into two
parts.
Turn the crank at a rate of about two revolutions per second and

count the blows necessary to close the groove in the soil

for a distance of about 12mm.

Take the water content sample from the closed part of the
groove.

Weigh the sample.

Remove the remaining soil from

brass cup and return it to the porcelain dish.
Add a small amount of water to the soil further in the dish and

carefully mix to a consistency to yield

a blow count of between 25 and 30 blows.

Repeat the sequence for two additional tests

for blow counts of between 20 and 25 and

between 15 and 20, for a total of four test determinations

w % values are plotted against the

logarithm of the number of blows, N.

96
Liquid Limit - Measurement

Liquid Limit (LL) at N = 25

 Plastic Limit - Definition

The moisture content in (%) at which

the soil when rolled into threads of 3.2mm
(1/8 in) in diameter, will get crumbled or
just show cracks
Plastic Limit - Measurement

PL = w% at d 3.2 mm (1/8 in.)

 Plastic Limit Test: Procedure
Break about 20g of soil into four peanut-sized samples,
using little water.

Roll the peanut of soil on a glass plate until it just

crumbles at 3mm
(use a glass or welding rod for comparison if you are
unsure of what 3mm is).

Place the crumbled soil in the pre-weighed moisture cup

and
put weight of wet crumble samples of different trails.
 Repeat this sequence three more times.

place the moisture cup in the oven for 24 hours

Put the weights of dry crumble sample of different
trials

PL = Average of w1, w2, w3….

Where w1 plastic limit water content of trail 1 sample

=

{[Wet weight – Dry weight] x 100} / Dry weight

Shrinkage Limit (SL) (ASTM D-427, ASTM D-4943)

The shrinkage limit is defined as

the moisture content, in percent, at which
the volume of the soil mass ceases to change.

102
 Shrinkage Limit – Test Procedure

Take about 40g of soil sieved through 425micron sieve

and mix with distilled water to make a creamy paste.

Make a water content slightly above liquid limit so that

the paste can be placed in the shrinkage dish without air
voids.

Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a very thin

layer of grease before filling with soil

weigh the dish and record the weight.

 Fill the dish with wet soil in approximately three layers.

tapping the dish gently each time to exclude air bubbles.

Fill the last layer to slightly overflow and strike off smooth with a
straight edge.

Weigh the dish with the wet soil.

Allow the wet soil pat to slightly air-dry and

oven dry the pat for 24hrs

Find the dry weight of the pat thereafter.

Find the volume of the shrinkage dish by first filling it with
mercury.

Press a flat glass plate down on the mercury surface to

remove the excess overflows in the large evaporating dish

Weigh the dish with mercury and compute the volume

of dish as
weight of mercury/13.58,

Note: 13.58 g/cm3 being the unit weight of mercury.

This is also the initial volume of the soil pat.

 Determine the volume of the dry soil pat by the
mercury displacement method.

Fill the glass cup with mercury.

Remove excess mercury by pressing the glass plate over

the top of the
cup,

Now Place the dry pat on the surface of mercury in the cup

Gently force the pat into the mercury with the three pronged glass
plate.

Collect the overflow mercury in the evaporating dish and weigh

it.
Now Volume of dry Pat = weight of overflow mercury/13.8.
This is known as final volume of Dry Pat
Shrinkage Limit calculation
 Consistency Indices
1. Plasticity Index (PI)
Difference between Liquid
PI = LL - PL
Limit and Plastic Limit
2. Liquidity Index (LI)
The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state

113
Liquidity index Classification

>1 Liquid

0.75 - 1.00 Very soft

0.50 - 0.75 Soft

0.25 - 0. 50 Medium stiff

0 - 0.25 Stiff

<0 Semi-solid
3. Flow Index

w1=44

w2=39

N1=20 N2=30
Flow index:

Flow index is defined as the slope of the flow curve

Flow Index =

Where N2, N1 are the number of blows corresponding to

the water content W1, W2
4. Consistency Index

If w is equal to the liquid limit, the consistency index is zero. Again,

if w = PI, then CI = 1.

5. Toughness index (It)

(It) = (IP/If)

95
 6. Activity

Activity is defined as the slope of the line correlating PI and %finer

than 2 micrometer and expressed as:

96
 The activity factor gives
information on the type and effect
of
CLAY MINERAL in a soil.
 Clay minerals with KAOLINITE have LOW activity, whereas
those soils with MONTMORILLONITE will have a high activity
value.

 Activity is used as an index for identifying the swelling

potential of clay soils.

Activity Classification
<0.75 Inactive clays
0.75-1.25 Normal Clays
>1.25 Active Clays

120
A Line Chart

135
Group Classification By ISC Method
Coarse Grain Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:
Fine Grain Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:
 Soil C: - Soil Passing 75 micron sieve = > 50%;
Hence it is fine grained.
Liquid Limit >50%; Hence High Compressible
Ip = WL – Wp = 60 – 30 = 30 and
Ip value on the A Line for the given Liquid Limit = ( wL -
20) = (60 -20) = 40
There fore Soil Ip lies below A line
Hence given soil is classified as MH = Silt of High
compressible
Soil Compaction

150
 Compaction
The process of bringing the soil particles closer
to a dense state by mechanical means.

The voids are reduced by expulsion of air and

the soil particles are packed together, thereby
increasing its unit weight.

151
 Objectives of Compaction
• Increase the shear strength.
• Increased bearing capacity for foundation
support.
• Reduce compressibility and smaller settlement of
buildings and lesser deformation of earth
structures.
• Reduce permeability, leading to less seepage of
water.
• Improve stability and lower damage due to
frost action.
• To reduce the degree of shrinkage and formation
of cracks on drying. 152
II. Laboratory Methods for Determining OM and MD

The Proctor Test (after Ralph R. Proctor, 1933)

 Hammer Compactive
Energy
Test Hammer Mass, Kg Drop, m kJ/m3

Standard Proctor 2.5 0.3 590

(25 blows per layer,
3 layers)

Modified Proctor 4.5 0.46 2700

(25 blows per layer,
5 layers)
 Recommended procedure
Take about 3kg (normal weight) of air dry – material passing through 4.75 mm
sieve.

Measure the diameter and height of the mould without collar and find the
volume
of the mould (V).

Clean the empty mould and weigh it to the nearest gram (W1).
Grease the inside of the mould lightly.
Fit the mould with the collar on to the base plate and place it on the solid base.

Add enough water to the soil to bring its moisture content to about 6%
Mix thoroughly to ensure uniform distribution of moisture.

Place the moist soil in the proctor mould in three layers of about equal thickness
and compact each layer 25 blows with the hammer.
Take care to uniformly distribute the blows
Remove the collar and carefully strike both the top and base of the
compacted cylinder of soil with a steel straight

Weigh the mould and cylinder of soil to the nearest gram (W2)

Eject the cylinder of soil from the mould, split it and take three
water content samples, one near the top, one at middle and the
other near the bottom and mix it as one sample and Weigh the
sample and oven-dry

Break up the sample and mix it with the unused portion.

Add sufficient water to raise the water content by about 2-3
percent,
carefully remix and repeat the experiment until
the peak wet density is followed by two slightly lesser compacted
weights
II. The Method

The Proctor Test (after Ralph R. Proctor, 1933)

II. The Method

The Proctor Test (after Ralph R. Proctor, 1933)

 Soil Compaction in the field
Soil Compaction can be achieved either by
static or dynamic loading:
1- Smooth-wheel rollers
2- Sheep foot rollers
3 Rubber-tired rollers
4 Vibratory Rollers
5 Vibro flotation

126
 Field Compaction depends on:
– Weight of roller
– No of passes of roller

Because of the differences between lab and field compaction methods, the
maximum dry density in the field may reach 90% to 95%.

127
Soil Compaction in the Field:

5- Sheep foot Roller

1- Rammers

2- Vibratory Plates

6- Dynamic Compaction

3- Smooth Rollers

4- Rubber-Tire

128
Factors affecting Compaction

1. Physical & chemical properties

2. Moisture content
3. Method of compaction
4. Amount of compactive effort
5. Thickness of layer or “lift” being
compacted

129
 Moisture Content and Compaction
The degree of compaction of soil is measured by its unit weight, , and optimum
moisture content,
By reducing the air voids, more soil can be added to the block.
When moisture is added to the block water content, is increasing
the soil particles will slip more on each other causing more
reduction in the total volume, which will result in adding more soil
and, hence, the dry density will increase, accordingly.

Increasing water content will increase dry unit weight to certain

limit called Optimum moister Content, (OMC)
After this limit Increasing water will decrease unit weight

130
Optimum Moisture Content

131
 2. Compaction Efforts.
The increase in amount of compaction ( energy applied per unit of volume) results
in an increase in the maximum dry density and decrease the OMC.
In laboratory compaction efforts are applied through:
Two Tests are usually performed in the laboratory to determine the
maximum dry unit weight and the OMC.
Standard Proctor Test
Modified Proctor
Test
In both the cases the compaction
energy is given as

The degree of compaction is not directly proportional to

compaction efforts
and dry density doesn’t increase indefinitely.
When the soil is initially loose, the compaction increases
the dry density,
but further compaction beyond certain 132 point doesn’t
 Effect of Energy on Soil Compaction
Increasing compaction energy Lower MC and higher dry density

Higher
Dry Density
Energy

In the field
increasing compaction
energy =
increasing number of
In the lab passes or reducing lift
increasing compaction depth
energy =
increasing number of
blows Water Content

133
 3. Soil Type:
The following physical properties of soil has direct
effect on the compaction efforts:

Shape of particles
Specific gravity of solids.
Amount and type of clay minerals.
Texture of soils

134
 4. Compaction method

Compaction efforts may be provided by:

Kneading ( Using punching device)
Dynamic ( Rollers)
Static action ( Mechanical jacks)

5. Admixtures:
Lime
Cement
Bitumen
Industrial wastes
135
 7. Processing amount
By thorough mixing of moisture in the soil, higher
density is achieved.

8. Energy Distribution:
Uniform distribution of compaction loads lead to
better compaction and higher dry density.

136
 UNIT II
Soil Water,
Permeability and stress distribution
Types of Soil water

Free water
Held
water
 Free Water
It moves freely in the pores of the soil under influence
of gravity
It flows from one point to another point when there is a
difference of Head( Elevation)
The rate at which the head reducing
along the flow passage is called Hydraulic
gradient
= I = h/L
The flow of free water in soil is just like laminar flow
through pipes
 Held water

It is retained in the pores of soil. It can not move

under the influence of gravity
Further Classification of Held Water
Structural Water
Adsorbed
water Capillary
water
 Types of held water :
• 1. Adsorbed water
– “HYGROSCOPIC WATER”
– It is held by electrochemical forces existing on the soil
surface
– Quantity depends upon the colloidal fractions in the
soil
– It is significant in the clay soil and negligible in coarse
grained soils

– Remove by oven drying

– Not available to plants
 2. Structural water
• It is chemically combined water in the
crystals of structure of the minerals in the soil
• This water can not be removed without
breaking the structure of the minerals
• A high temperature of 300°C is required for
removing this water
 CAPILLARY WATER

This water held in the pore space lines(interstices) of soil

due to capillary forces(Surface Tension)
It exists in soil so long as
there is an air- water interface
As soon as the soil submerged in water,
the capillary water become normal
 capillarity

Height water will

rise in
cylinder depends
on
diameter of tube;
due to adhesion
of water and
tube

Plastic Glass
 Capillary pressure
• Thin tube in open pan water

-20 g/cm3

-10

0
• the smaller the pore space, the
higher capillary water will rise in
profile

clay silt sand

Pan of water
Seepage Pressure or Seepage Force
Seepage:
Flow of water through a soil under hydraulic gradient

Seepage pressure
When water flowing through soil pores, a viscous friction
exerted by water on the soil surface
due to that
An energy transfer is effected between soil and water
The force corresponding to this energy transfer is called
seepage force or pressure.
Thus
It is the pressure exerted by water on the soil through
which it percolates.
 DARCY’S
• The law of flowLAW
of water through soil was first
studied by Darcy in the Year 1856.

• “for laminar flow through saturated soil mass, the

discharge per unit time is proportional to the
hydraulic gradient.

q=k* I *A
q/A =
k*I v =
k* I
 q = discharge per unit time
A = total c/s area of soil mass.
I = hydraulic gradient = h/L

k = darcy’s coefficient of permeability

 I = h/L = (h1 – h2)/L

 q = k* (h1-h2)*A/L
 Co Efficient of Permeability

Ability of a soil to transmit water or allow water

to flow through it
 Factors affecting permeability of soils

i. Particle size.
ii. Properties of pore fluid.
iii. Void ratio of soil.
iv. Shape of particles.
v. Structure of soil mass.
vi. Degree of saturation.
vii.Adsorbed water.
viii.Impurities in water.
1) Particle size :-
permeability varies approximately as the
square of grain size

K=C*(D10)²

k=coefficient of
permeability(cm/sec)
D
10=effective
diameter(cm)
2)Properties of pore fluid :
The permeability is directly
proportional to the unit weight of water and
inversely proportional to is viscosity.

3)Void ratio of soil :

The coefficient of Permeability
varies as e³/(1+e).
For a given soil , greater the void
ratio , the higher is the value of
the coefficient of permeability.
4) Shape of particles :
The permeability of soil depends upon the shape
of particles.

5) Structure of soil mass :

stratified soil deposits have greater permeability
when flow parallel to the plane of stratification then
that perpendicular to this plane.

6) degree of saturation :
If the soil is not fully saturated, it contains air
pockets formed due to entrapped air. The presence of
air in soils, causes blockage of passage and
permeability is reduced.
7) Adsorbed water :
the fine grained soils have a layer of
adsorbed water strongly attached to their
surface. There by reduce permeability.

8) Impurities in water :
Any foreign matter in water has a tendency
to plug the flow passage and reduce the
permeability of soils.
 DETERMINATION OF COFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY
1) Laboratory methods
A-: constant head permeability
test
B-: falling head permeability test
2) Field methods
A-: pumping out tests
B-: pumping in tests
3) Indirect methods
A-: computation from the particle
size
B-: computation from
 A) CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

 The coefficient of permeability of a coarse-

grained soil can be determined in the
laboratory using a constant-head
permeability test.
 The test includes a cylindrical soil specimen
that is subjected to a constant head as shown
in Figure
Equipments :
 Permeability mould, internal diameter = 100mm,
effective height =127.3, capacity = 1000 ml,
 Constant head tank.
 Graduated cylinder, stop water, thermo meter.
 Filter paper, vacuum pump.
 Weighing balance, 0.1 gm accuracy.
 The length of the soil specimen is L and its cross-
sectional area is A.

The total head loss (h) along the soil specimen is

equal to the constant head, which is the
difference in elevation between the water
levels
in the upper and lower reservoirs as shown in the
figure.
Using a graduated flask, we can collect a volume of
water (V) in a period of time (t ). From this we can
calculate the flow rate
( Q= V/t).
204
B) FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST
 All the equipment required for the constant
head permeability test.
 In addition A stand pipe

 It is recommended for fine grained soil

 Where, a= c/s area of stand pipe (cm2)
• A= c/s area of soil sample
• L= length of soil sample (cm)
• t= time interval to fall head from h1 to h2
• h1= initial head (cm)
• h2= final head (cm)
A soil sample 5 cm in length and 60 cm in cross-
sectional area, water percolates through the
sample in 10 minutes is 480 ml under a
constant head of 40 cm. Weight of oven dried
sample is 498 gm and specific gravity of soil =
2.65.
Calculate:
(i) Coefficient of permeability
(ii) Seepage velocity.
If during a permeability test on a soil sample
with falling head permeameter,
equal time intervals are noted for
drops of head from h1 and h2 and
again from h2 to h3,
find a relationship between h1, h2 and
h 3.
 2. Field permeability tests
1) Pumping-out tests:-
A-: for unconfined aquifer
B-: for confined aquifer

2) Pumping –in tests:-

A-: open end tests
B-: single packer tests
C-: double packer tests
 1) Pumping-out Tests
 For large engineering projects, it is the
usual practice to measure the permeability of
soils of entire aquifer by pumping out tests.
 This method is very useful for a
homogeneous coarse

 The pumping out tests are very costly.

 Definitions of Technical Terms related to permeability

1. Aquifer
2. Aquiclude
3. Aquitard
4. Aquifuge
5. Unconfined
6. aquifer Confined
aquifer
 2) Pumping –in tests
Pumping in tests are conducted to determine
The coefficient of permeability of
an individual stratum thorough which a hole is
drilled.

The tests are more economical than pumping out tests

The water pumped in should be clean.

impurities such as silt, clay or any other foreign matter
may
cause plugging of the flow passages.
Confined flow pumping test

286
Unconfined flow pumping test
q l n  r 2 
 r 1 
k 
  h 2 2  h 1 2 

289
 Permeability of Stratified Soils:
When a soil profile consists of a number of strata having
different permeability,
the equivalent or average permeability of the soil is
different for
Flow of water is parallel or
normal to the plane of stratification.
Where Kx = Equivalent or average permeability in direction
parallel to the plane of stratification – X direction
Where Kz = equivalent permeability for flow normal to the layers.
So the equivalent permeability for flow parallel to the strata is
always
greater than that for flow normal to the strata
i.e., Kx is always greater than Kz.
A sand deposit is made up of three horizontal layers
of equal thickness. The permeability of the top
and bottom layers is 2 x10-4cm/s and that of
middle layer is 3.2 x 10-2 cm/s. Find the equivalent
permeability in the horizontal and vertical
direction and their ratio.
Effective stress due to
self weight of soil
 Effective Stress Equation.
The effective stress σ'

may be calculated by
a simple subtraction of the pore pressure from the total stress:

where σ is the total stress and u is the pore pressure.

Effective stress calculation
Typical Stress Profile
 Determine the stresses at points A, B, C, and D in the soil
profile shown.

Unit weight of water :

Point Total Stress Neutral Stress Effective Stress

A 0 0 0
B 440 0 440
C 1040 312 728
D 1790 686 1104
 calculations

Point D

Point C

Point B
 Capillary Rise
Above the water table up to the height of capillary rise, the Zone called capillary
zone and the water is called capillary water.

The water pressure is negative (less than atmospheric) in the capillary zone.

These observations are illustrated in the figures below.

A soil profile is shown with capillary water and free water. The
problem is to determine the pore water pressures at point A,
B, C, and D.
The stratum’s conditions and the related physical characteristics
parameters of a foundation are shown in Fig below. Calculate the
stress due to self-weight at a,b,c. Draw the stress distribution.

w=15.6%
e=0.57
γs=26.6k
N/m3

w=22%
wL=32%
wp=23%
γs=27.3kN/
m3
Many Layers of soil, the vertical stress due to self-weight of soil is
given as following.
Point of Stress under water Table

γ1h1
San
Water d
table
γ1'h2
γwh2

Clay
(watertight)

σz=γ1h1+γ1'h2+γwh2+γsat3
h3
A soil profile is shown with capillary water and free water. The
problem is to determine the pore water pressures at point A,
B, C, and D.
Calculating vertical stress
The stratum’s conditions and the related physical characteristics
parameters of a foundation are shown in Fig below. Calculate the
stress due to self-weight at a,b,c. Draw the stress distribution.

w=15.6%
e=0.57
γs=26.6k
N/m3

w=22%
wL=32%
wp=23%
γs=27.3kN/
m3
a σz=0
b σz(upper)=γ’1h1=9.9×2=19.8kPa
σz(Down)=γ’1h1+ γw(h1+hw)=9.9×2+10×(2+1.2)=51.8kPa
c σz=γ’1h1+ γw(h1+hw)+ γsat2h2
= 9.9×2+10×(2+1.2)+20.8×3=114.2kPa
The stratum’s conditions and the related physical
characteristics
parameters of a foundation are shown in Fig below. Calculate the
stress due to self-weight at 10m depth. Draw the stress distribution.
Note: For saturated clay, both cases (watertight and non-
watertight) need to consider.
w=8% e=0.7
γs=26.5kN/m3

e=1.5
γs=27.2kN/m3
Consolidation
 Consolidation
The process involving
a gradual compression occurring simultaneously
with expulsion of water from the soil mass and
with a gradual transfer of the applied pressure
from the pore water to the solid particles
is called consolidation.
The process opposite to consolidation is called
swelling
which involves an increase in the water content
due to an increase in the volume of the voids.
Factors Affecting Consolidation
1. External static loads from structures.

2. Self-weight of the soil such as recently placed fills.

3. Lowering of the ground water table.

4. Desiccation ( Draught).

353
 Components of Settlement
The total compression of a saturated clay strata
under excess effective pressure may be
considered as the sum of
1. Immediate compression,
2. Primary consolidation, and
3. Secondary compression.
 Initial Consolidation
Sudden small volume reduction due
to expulsion of air from the voids
referred as initial consolidation
 Primary Consolidation
Volume reduction in the soil due to
expulsion of water from the soil over a long time
due to static application of load is referred as
primary consolidation.
 Secondary consolidation
This compression starts after the
primary consolidation ceases,
that is after the excess pore water pressure
approaches zero
due to
Re-orientation or re- arrangement of of
solid
particles
Difference between Compaction and Consolidation

compressibility ( compaction or Consolidation)

The process of volume change in a soil when subjected to
pressure

consolidation
The process of rate of volume change over a time period due
to static loading

compaction
Expulsion of air from a soil by applying Dynamic Loading
and thereby sudden volume change.
 Consolidation test

oedometer
Assumption:
• Load distribution-uniform
• Stress distribution(in different height)-the same
• Lateral deformation-0
• The area of the sample section-unchangeable
• Solid soil-uncompressible
 Testing Methodology

The soil sample is contained in the brass ring between two porous stones about 1.25
cm thick.
by means of the porous stones water has free access to and from both surfaces of the
specimen.
The compressive load is applied to the specimen through a piston,
either by means of a hanger and dead weights or by a system of levers.
The compression is measured on a dial gauge.
At the bottom of the soil sample the water expelled from the soil flows
through the
filter stone into the water container.
At the top, a well-jacket filled with water is placed around the stone in order
to
prevent excessive evaporation from the sample during the test.
Water from the sample also flows into the jacket through the upper filter
stone.
The soil sample is kept submerged in a saturated condition during the test. 3
6
2
 Loads are applied in steps in such a way that
the successive load intensity, p, is twice the preceding one.

The load intensities commonly used being 25, 50,100,200,400, 800 and
1600 kN/m2.

Each load is allowed to stand until compression has practically ceased

(no longer than 24 hours).

The dial readings are taken at elapsed times of 1/4, 1/2, 1,2,4, 8,15, 30,
60, 120, 240, 480 and 1440 minutes from the time the new
increment of load is put on the sample.

363
After the greatest load required for the test has been applied to the
soil sample,

the load is removed in decrements to provide data for plotting the

expansion curve of the soil in order to
learn its elastic properties and magnitudes of plastic or permanent
deformations.

The following data should also be obtained:

Moisture content and weight of the soil sample before the
commencement of the test.
Moisture content and weight of the sample after completion of
the
test.
The specific gravity of the solids.
 e Log P curve

3 compression Coefficient
de
av  e1  e2   , MPa1 , kPa1
p 2  p1 dp
 av < 0.1Mpa-1, Low compressibility
0.1≤ av < 0.5Mpa-1, Middle compressibility
av ≥ 0.5Mpa-1, High compressibility
4 compression index Cc

e1  e2
Cc (e1  e2 )
 
 lg p2  lg p1 lg p 2
p1
over consolidation ratio OCR

It is Defined as
Previous Maximum Effective stress / present Maximum Effective Stress

For a normally consolidated clay

the present effective stress is also the previous maximum

so
OCR=1.

for a heavily over consolidated

clay OCR may be 4 or more

therefore this type of soil has been subjected to

a much greater stress in the past
 Settlement of Foundation

e e a  p
s  10 e1  h  1 
v
 h v m 
0 0
p e h
 Terzaghi One Dimensional Consolidation Theory
Dr. Karl Terzaghi gave the theory of one
dimensional consolidation based on the following
assumptions:
1. Soil is completely saturated.
2. Soil & water are virtually incompressible.
3. The compression is one- dimensional.
4. Darcy's Law is valid.
5.Soil permeability is constant.
6. The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)
is assumed to be constant
7. No secondary compression or creep occurs
8. The total stress on the element is assumed to
remain constant.
 . Time factor

Where average degree of consolidation = (U)

 Taylor’s Square Root of Time Fitting Method
From the oedometer test the dial reading (settlement) corresponding to
a particular time is measured.
From the measured data, dial reading vs \[\sqrt {Time}\] graph can be
drawn as shown in Figure .
A straight line can be drawn passing through the points on initial
straight portion of the curve .
The intersection point between the straight line and the dial reading
axis
is denoted as R0 which is corrected zero reading i.e U = 0%.
Starting from R0,draw another straight line such that its abscissa is 1.15
times the abscissa of first straight line.
The intersection point between the second straight line and
experimental curve represents the R90 and corresponding \[\sqrt
{{t_{90}}}\] is determined.
 Casagrande’s Logarithm of Time Fitting Method
Select two points t1 and t2 in initial part of the curve such
that t2 = 4 t1.
The points corresponding to the chosen times are marked on
the curve.
The vertical distance (z) between the two points on the curve is
measured.
Select another point R0 such that the vertical distance
between that point and point on the curve corresponding to
the t1 time is also z.
R0 is corrected zero reading i.e U = 0%.
Determine the U=100% line by drawing two tangents form the
straight portion of the curve .
Once U=0% and 100% lines are identified, U= 50% line is also
determined by choosing the middle point between the
U=0% and 100% lines.
Time (t50) corresponding to the 50% degree of
consolidation is determined from the
Shear Strength of Soils

UNIT IV
384
 Strength of different materials

Steel Concrete Soil

Shear
Compressive
Tensile strength - strength –
strength -
significant
significant
significant
Presence of pore water
Complex
behavior
385
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

Definition -1
The maximum shear stress
That
the soil can sustain
just before failure,
under normal stress
of 
known as
Shear strength f
386
 Definition -2
the shear strength of
any material
is
the load per
unit area
or
pressure
that
it can

withstand
before
undergoing
shearing failure
 Definition -3
Shear strength
is a
soils’ ability
to resist
sliding of solid particles
along
internal surfaces
within the soil mass
The Shear Force‘F’ that acts on the failure
plane is applied
on the soil
element of
resisted
weight W by
the strength of the
material T
  W
W
 To overcome the
friction force F
an internal cause
reaction force T d
gives
the resultant
vector, R
which
theacts
normal to at an
the
angle
plane. of 
Angle  known with as therespect
is coefficient of to friction.
Principal planes and principal stresses

Infinite number of planes passing through

a point in a soil mass
Among them
There are
Three mutually perpendicular planes
on which
shear stress is zero
called principal planes.

Only normal stresses that acts on these planes

are
called principal stresses.
The largest principal stress is called major principal stress (σ1),

The lowest principal stress is called minor principal stress (σ3)

The third stress is called intermediate stress (σ2).

The corresponding planes are called

major, minor and intermediate plane, respectively.

The critical stress values or failure stresses generally occur

on the plane normal to the intermediate plane.

Thus, only σ1 and σ3 are considered.

 Due to Normal
Loading The soil
element squeezed
vertically will tend to
bulge
horizontally

Due to
which the
soil

reacts with
confining
pressures σ2 and σ3
in

the
 Factors Influencing Shear Strength

soil composition:
Mineralogy

grain size and grain size distribution

shape of particles

pore fluid type and content

type of ions in pore fluid.

 Initial state:

State can be describe by terms such as:

Loose or dense

over-consolidated or normally
consolidated

stiff or soft
 Structure:

Refers to the arrangement of particles within

the soil mass;

the manner in which the particles are packed

or distributed.

Such as

Flocculated or dispersed
Loading conditions:

Type of loading
(static or dynamic)

Time history:
monotonic or cyclic.

Magnitude of

loading Rate of

Loading
Examples of Shear failure
Shear failure of soils - Embankment

Embankment Failure
Shear failure of soils – Retaining wall
 Shear failure
Soils generally fail in shear

embankment

strip footing

mobilized shear
resistance

failure surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure

surface reaches the shear strength.
251
Shear failure

failure surface
The soil grains slide
over each other
along the failure
surface.

No crushing of
individual
grains. 252
 Shear failure mechanism

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

()
reaches the shear strength (f).
253
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of total stresses)


  c   tan
f

Friction
Cohesio
f angle
n
c



c and  are measures of shear 409

strength.
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

(in terms of effective stresses)
  c' ' tan '
 'f u

u = pore water
’
Effectiv pressure
e Effective
cohesio f friction
n c’ angle

’ ’
f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure,
under normal stress of .
C’ and ’ are measures of shear 410
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Shear strength consists of two components:
cohesive and frictional.


f
f  f
tan
’
’f tan ’ c' ' '
frictional
compone
nt
c’ c’
’f '

411
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

Y
X
X

Y Soil elements at
different locations
X ~
failure
Y ~
stable
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL


c

c
Y
c c+

Initially, Mohr circle is a point
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…

GL


c

c
Y
c

Keeping σ3 constant, if vertical stress (σ1) increases

the Mohr Circle becomes larger and

finally it will touch the failure envelop and

failure will take place
Orientation of Failure Plane
Failure plane
Y oriented at 45 + /2
to horizontal
45 + /2
GL
45 + /2

c

c 90+
Y
c c+
Mohr circles in terms of  & ’
v v’ u

h h’

= +
u
X X X

effective stresses
total stresses

h’ v’ h v
u
262
263
264
 Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c,  or c’ ’

Field tests
Laboratory tests on specimens
taken from representative
undisturbed samples

Most common laboratory tests to determine

the shear strength parameters are, 1. Torvane
2. Pocket penetrometer
1. Direct shear test 3. Fall cone
4. Pressuremeter
2. Triaxial shear test
5. Static cone penetrometer
3.Un confined Compression (UCC) Test
6. Standard penetration test
4.Vane Shear Test 7. Field Vane Shear Test

420
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Can be performed on all types
of soil, moist or dry.
Measures shear stress at failure
on failure plane
for various normal stresses.
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
.
Direct shear test

423
 Direct shear test
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

424
Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface of Specimen preparation

specimen completed

270
 Direct shear test
P Steel ball
Test procedure
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and

wait for consolidation 271
 Direct shear test
P Steel ball
Test procedure
Pressure plate
Porou
s
plates
S

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

272
Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame Dial gauge to measure

to apply vertical horizontal
displacement
load

273
 A shear box has three parts:

a top extension, Bottom base and a normal

load piston The prepared soil sample is placed in

the box

A normal (90 to the horizontal) load is applied to the

soil Then the top and base are pushed in opposite

directions

Due to this operation, failure occur on a

horizontal plane between the top and base

The horizontal force is increased until the sample shears in two

halves The procedure is repeated two more times using

successively heavier normal loads.
The inside dimensions of the shear box are 60 mm by
60 mm This means the failure plane has an area of
3600 mm2.
The shear force at failure (maximum) and normal load,
are
divided by
this plane area to find
the shear stress and the normal str.ess at failure in MPa.

The shear force required to shear the sample

increases in proportion to the normal
load.

The shear strength of the soil therefore is not constant

but
 First Test Second Third Test
Test

τ
τ

τ f
Shear Stress,

τ
(kPa)

 f

Normal Stress,
 Plotting the shear stress versus normal
stress

Fitting a best fit line through these points:

The slope angle of this line is

the angle of internal friction,  of the soil.

The τ axis intercept is

the apparent cohesion, c of the soil :
 Direct shear test
Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

  Normal stress
 Area of cross section of the
sample

Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

  Shear stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

we have an estimate of Coulomb’s failure envelope

The equation of Coulomb’s failure envelope:

τf = c + σntan 278
Direct shear tests on sands Stress-strain relationship

Dense sand/

Shear stress, 
OC clay
f
Loose sand/
f NC clay

Shear displacement

279
 Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and  of sand

Direct
Sand is cohesionless drained and pore
hence c = 0 shear
pressures
water are dissipated,
hence u = 0
tests
Therefore,
are
’ =  and c’ = c =
0

280
A saturated compacted gravel was tested in a large
shear box, 300 mm x 300 mm in plan. What
properties of the gravel can be deduced from the
following results?

Normal load (N) Peak Shear Load (N)

4500 4500
9200 7890
1380 11200
Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Shear test

Advantages
Simplest test
most economical for sandy soil
Quick test ie Time consumed is less
Disadvantages
Soil not allowed to fail along the weakest plane.
Shear stress distribution is not uniform.
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

Can be performed on all types of soil, moist or

dry
and
can consolidate sample to in situ
conditions by tracking pore water
pressures.

Measures vertical stress applied to soil

sample and
confining pressure.
 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION
TEST
The usual sizes of the samples are: 76 mm (length) x
38 mm (diameter)
or
100 mm (length) x 50 mm (diameter).

Thus,
the length/diameter ratio of
the cylindrical sample is 2.

This test is suitable for both sand and

clay.
 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Cylindrical specimens are prepared from sampled
soil Specimens are weighed and dimensions
measured first The specimen is then placed in a
plexi glass chamber

diameter

lengt
h
.
The specimen is mounted between 2 platens and then inserted into
a latex
sleeve.
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

loading
ram air
release valve

plexiglas
chamber
water supply
for cell loading
(confining) cap latex
pressure sleeve
Pore pressure measurement
specime
porous
n
disc
pedestal
 Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious

Soil sample at Soil membrane

failure sample
Porous
Perspe stone
x cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back Pore pressure or
pressure pedestal volume change

289
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes

290
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample are Setting up the sample in

carefully trimmed the triaxial cell

291
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered with a

rubber membrane and Cell is
sealed completely filled
with water 292
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

293
 The specimen is mounted on the pedestal of the
chamber

Then the chamber is placed on the base and locked into

place.

The assembly is then mounted on the compression

testing
machine.

For a drained test the drain valve is opened and pore

water
collected

For an un-drained test, the drain valve is closed.

 Water is forced into the cell
with the supply valve open as well as
the air
release valve

Once the cell is filled with

water, the air release valve is
closed and

the cell pressure is increased

to the desired value for the
test.
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
The effect of the cell pressure on
the specimen is illustrated
below:
∆ σ σ3
σ
3 σ1  Δσ  3
σ
σ3
∆σ
Plan View Side View
of of
The cell pressure, σ3, is also known as the
Minor Principal Stress.

Then a vertical axial load is applied to the

loading ram creating compressive
stresses or the
deviator stress ∆σ :

The Major Principal Stress, σ1, is the

combination of the deviator stress and
cell pressure:

find τf and σf from σ1 and σ3 by preparing a

Mohr’s circle!
 plot σ1 and σ3 on the σn axis

During the test, this circle starts as one point at

σ3
and then grows to the right as axial
stress,
∆σ increases but σ3 remains constant.

Ultimately, the test ends when

shear failure occurs and the circle has
become tangent to the failure
envelope.

The point of tangency of the circle and failure

envelope defines
the shear strength, τf and normal stress, σf.
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Shear Stress, τ
(kPa)

τ
f

σ3 σ1 σ1 Normal Stress,
∆σσf∆σ ∆σ σ (kPa)
 But how do we find the failure envelope
from a triaxial compression
test?

Geometrically, you need at least two circles in

order to define a line tangent to
both.

This means that you need to perform the test

at least twice on the same material but at
different
cell pressures.

But how can you be sure one of them isn’t

bogus?
A third test at yet another cell pressure
would help to confirm the validity of
the failure
envelope.

As with most lab measurements, the

ideal (one line tangent to all three circles) is
difficult
to achieve.

Therefore
a best fit is made as long as one circle is not
out to compared to the others.
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Shear Stress, τ
(kPa)

 c
Normal Stress,
σn(kPa)
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Shear Stress, τ
(kPa)

specimen
Θ

failure plane

c Θ R

σ3 σ1 Normal Stress,
C σ (kPa)
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
To follow the trig we label the
vertices:
Shear Stress, τ
(kPa)

B
τ
σ1  σ 3
f R

 2 Θ

σ1 
2Θ C 2
E Θ F
A 
c σ3
D C Normal Stress,
σ3 σf σ1 σn(kPa)
 UNDRAINED TEST
[when the pore water is not allowed to
drain]

As the external pressure increases,

the internal pore water pressure

increases

Therefore, the failure envelope is

typically a horizontal line and u

 Typically,
the deviator stress at failure
is fairly constant
for each different cell pressure.
And,
the apparent cohesion,
cu will be the same
for each trial and
equal to the shear strength,
τf
The normal stress, σf for each
trial will then be σ3 + cu
 (The radii of all more
Shear Stress, τ

circles
are same)
(kPa)

cu = u 
τf 0

Normal Stress,
σf σf σf σn(kPa)
Stages of Tri – Axial Shear Test
 Tri-axial tests are conducted in two stages

Stage I: under all round cell pressure (σ3) Application)

The all round cell pressure is applied by using water
inside the tri-axial cell.

if drainage is allowed
the consolidation takes place in the sample
then it is called consolidated sample.

if drainage is not allowed then

the sample is called unconsolidated sample
Stage II: under shearing or loading Deviator
stress, ΔσdApplication

if drainage is allowed then

loading is called drained loading.
if drainage is not allowed then
the loading is called un-drained
loading
 The Consolidation and
drainage in the sample is
controlled by
closing or opening
the drainage valve.
 Types of Tri-axial Tests
Depending on
Whether consolidation and drainage is allowed or
not
during both stages
three types of tri-axial tests are conducted:

(i) Unconsolidated Un-drained (UU) test

(ii) Consolidated Un-drained (CU) test

(iii) Consolidated Drained (CD) test

 Types of Tri axial Tests
deviatoric stress ()

Under all-around cell Shearing (loading)

pressure c

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading

315
 Consolidated Drained (CD)
Test
 no excess pore pressure throughout the test
∆u = 0

 very slow shearing to avoid build-up of pore

pressure

Can be days!
 not desirable
 c’ and ’ are determined

Test results are used

for analysing
long term stability
316
of the
structure
Consolidated Un drained (CU)
Test
pore pressure develops during deviator
stress application and it is also measured

 c’ and ’ are determined

 faster than CD
(preferred way to find c’ and ’)

But
slower than the UU
317
Unconsolidated Un drained (UU)
Test
 pore pressure develops during load
application ∆u= 0; i.e., failure envelope is
Not measured horizontal
’
unknown

 analysed in terms of   gives cu

and u
 very quick test

Use cu and u for

analysing undrained
1 to 3 Relation at Failure
1

X 3

soil element at failure

3 1

   tan 2 (45   / 2)  2c tan( 45 

 1/ 2) 3
 Stress path
Stress path is a curve used
to represent
the successive states of stress
in a test specimen of soil
during loading or unloading.

Series of Mohr circles

drawn to represent
the successive states of stress
but it is difficult to
represent number of circles in one
diagram.
 Figure shows number of Mohr circles
by keeping σ3 and
increasing σ1
on σ - t
plane.

The successive states of stress can be represented by a

series of stress points and

a locus of these points

(in the form of straight or curve) is obtained.
The locus is called stress path.

The stress points on σ - t plane can be transferred to p-

 v
Stress Point
h X

 t
stress point
stress point

h v  s

(v+h)/2
t v   h
2
s v  h

 2 477
 Types of Stress Path

(a) Total stress path (TSP)

(b) Effective stress path (ESP)
(c)Stress path of
total stress minus
static pore water
pressure (TSSP)
1. Un-drained tri- axial tests with pore pressure measurement have
been performed on three samples of a particular soil, after
consolidation to different cell pressures. What information (strength
parameters) can be obtained from the results given below?

Cell pressure in kPa Deviator Stress in kPa Pore Pressure in kPa

24 31 12
48 76 18
72 104 30
2. A soil has an apparent cohesion c’ = 5 kPa and an
angle of friction φ’ = 35◦ .
A sample of this soil is consolidated in a triaxial cell by
applying a cell pressure σ3 = 70 kPa.
The sample is then failed by increasing the axial stress
under undrained conditions (σ3 remains constant).
Calculate the axial stress at failure if the pore pressure
at failure u = 20 kPa.

   tan 2 (45   / 2)  2c tan( 45 

 1/ 2) 3
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
The test is suitable for saturated clay (Øu =0).

The test is conducted under zero cell pressure.

Thus,

it a special case of tri-axial test with σ3 = 0

 A cylindrical specimen is

subjected to axial stress until failure.

the subscript u is used as

the test is un-drained test.

The major principle stress (σ1) is

equal to the

unconfined compressive strength of the

soil (qu).
Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

485
Shear Stress, τ
(kPa)

c=
τf

qu qu q u σf q Normal Stress,
ququ
q u σn(kPa)
 Vane Shear Test

Vane shear test is a useful method of measuring

the shear strength of clay.

It is a cheaper and quicker method.

 The laboratory vane shear test is useful
for

soils of low shear strength (less than 0.3 kg/cm2)

for which
tri-axial or unconfined tests can not be
performed.

The test gives the un-drained strength of the soil.

The undisturbed and

remoulded strength
obtained are
useful
for evaluating the sensitivity of soil.
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Prepare two or three specimens of

the soil sample of dimensions of

at least 37.5 mm diameter and 75 mm length in specimen

(L/D ratio 2 or 3).

Mount the specimen container with the specimen

on the base of the

vane shear apparatus.
Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen
to their full length
without disturbing the soil specimen.

The top of the vanes should be

at least 10 mm below
the top of the specimen.

Rotate the vanes at an uniform rate say 0.1o/s

until the specimen fails.

Note the reading of the angle of twist.

Find the value of blade height in cm.
Find the value of blade width in cm.
Calculations