SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS USING MATLAB

Chapter 0 — From the Ground Up!

L. F. Chaparro and A. Akan

 Digital signal processing

• 1948 – birth of digital technologies

• Transistor (Bell Labs)
• Stored–program computer (Manchester University, UK)
• Publications

• Shannon’s digital communications

• Hamming’s error correcting codes
• Wiener’s Cybernetics

• Moore’s Law, DSPs and FPGs

• 1965 — Moore (Intel): number of transistors in a chip would double every 2 years
• Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): optimized microprocessors for real–time
processing
• Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA): device with programmable blocks and
interconnects

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 Compact disc (CD) and compact disc player

Speake
Lase r
r DAC

Audio
Senso
Amplifie
r
r

When playing a CD, the CD player follows tracks in the disc, focus laser beam on them,
as CD is spun. Light is reflected by pits and bumps on the surface of disc (corresponding
to the coded digital signal from acoustic signal). Sensor detects reflected light and
converts it into a digital signal and converted into an analog signal by DAC. Amplified and
fed to speakers signal sounds like original recorded acoustic signal.

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 Software–defined radio (SDR)

TRANSMITTE Antenn
a
R
Microphon
e

A DC Modulator DA C

Antenn
a
RECEIVE Speake
R r

Super
heterodyn A DC Demodulato DA C
e r

Voice SDR mobile two-way radio

Transmitter: voice signal inputted using microphone, amplified by an audio amplifier,
converted into a digital signal by ADC,modulated using software, converted by DAC into
analog signal which is amplified and radiated by antenna
Receiver: analog signal received by antenna is processed by a superheterodyne,
converted by ADC,demodulated using software, converted by DAC, amplified and fed to
speaker

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 Computer–control system

w(t)

r(t) y(t)
+ Digital
ADC DAC Plan
- Compute
t
r
Clock

Sensor

v(t)

Computer control system for an analog plant (e.g., cruise control for a car)
Reference signal r (t) (e.g., desired speed) and output y (t) (e.g., car speed)
Signals v (t) and w(t): disturbances or noise in plant and sensor (e.g., electronic noise in
the sensor and undesirable vibration in the car)

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 Continuous and discrete representations

Sampling continuous–time signal x (t) into discrete–time signal sequence x [n]:

x [n] = x (nTs ) = x (t)|t=nTs
Ts :sampling perioddepends on frequency content of x (t)
2

x1(0.1n)

−2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2
x2(n)

−2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (sec)

Sampling x (t) = 2 cos(2πt), 0 ≤ t ≤ 10, with Ts1 = 0.1 (top) and Ts2 = 1 (bottom) giving
x1(0.1n) = x1[n] and x2(n) = x2[n]
Notice similarity between x1[n] and x (t) and loss of information when Ts2 = 1

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 Inherent discrete–time signal

ACM Closings, Jan. 2006− Dec. 2009

260

240

220
200

Dollars
180

160

140

120

100
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Week

Weekly closings of ACM stock for 160 weeks in 2006 to 2009. ACM is the trading name
of the stock of the imaginary company ACME Inc. makers of everything you can imagine.

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 Implementation of DSP Algorithms

• Continuous-time signals Electrical and electronic circuits

• Digital signals Addition, multiplication, and delay

• DSP system’s output Arithmetic operations on input

• Possible real-time implementations;

• General-purpose microprocessors (Ps) and micro-controllers (Cs)

• General-purpose digital signal processors (DSPs)

• Field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs)

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 Infinitesimal and finite calculus
• Derivative and forward– difference

• Integral and summation

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Approximation of integral

10

t
6
t, n

0 2 4 6 8 10
t

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 Differential and difference equations

Solve d.e. from series RC circuit with a constant voltage source vi (t) as input and R = 1 Ω,
C = 1 F (huge plates!)
dvc
vi (t) = vc (t) + t≥
(t)d
0
with initial voltage vc (0) across capacitor t
• Use integrators
vc (0)
dv c (t)
vi (t) v c (t) v c (t)
v i (t) dt
( .) dt
+ +

dv c (t) d(.)
dt dt

Block diagram for d.e. using differentiators (left) and integrators (right).
Differentiators increase noise, integrators smooth out noise

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 t t0 t1
∆t

Trapezoidal approximation of area

• Difference equation

T 2−
vc (nT ) [vi (nT ) + vi ((n − vc ((n − vc (0) = 0, n ≥
2+ T T
= 1)T )] + 1)T ), 1
2+ T
can be solved iteratively

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 Complex or real?

• Damping and frequencyof signals represented by complex

variable
• Complex numbers and functions z+
(x, y)
y v
| v z
z|
(a (b
) θ x )

(x, y)
|z|
v z
| φ |z| θ
v|
θ θ
θ+
(c (d |
φ
) z|
) (x, −y)
|z||
v|
(a) z = x + jy as vector ; (b) addition of complex numbers; (c) multiplication of
complex numbers; (d) complex conjugation of z.

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 Complex numbers
• Representations
z = x + jy rectangular
j ∠z
= |z |e polar
• Operations

I m[z]

• Rectangular to
polar conversion 1

3 R e[z] 3 R e[z]

z = 3 + j 4 = 5e j0.93 √
u = − 3+ j = 10 e j 2 . 8 2
I m[z] I m[z]
4 1
R e[z] R e[z]
1

j 3.79
w = −4 − 3 j = 5 e √
v=1−j = 2 e− j π / 4

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 Euler’s identity

ej θ= cos(θ) + j
sin(θ)
jθ −j
cos(θ) = Re[ejθ ] = e + e
θ 2
jθ −j
sin(θ) = Im[ejθ ] = e − e .
θ 2j

• Polar to rectangular conversion

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• Roots and powers of j

j
z3+ 1= 0 zk3 = −1 = (2k+1)π
, k = 0, 1,
zk = ej (2k+1)π/3, k e= 0, 1, 2 2
⇒ j π/3 z 1 = ej π =
z0 = e , z2 = ej (6−1)π/3 = ej 2πe−j π/3 = e−j
−1, π/3
90 1 90 1
120 60 120 60

150 0.5 30 150 0.5 30

180 0 180

210 330 210 33

240 300 240 300

270 270

Left: roots of z3 + 1 = 0. Right: integer powers of j , periodic of period 4, with

period of {1, j ,− 1, −j}

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• Trigonometric identities

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 Phasor
s
• Sinusoids and phasors

x (t) = A cos(Ω0t + ψ) −∞ <

t< ∞ ψ phase (rad)
A amplitude, Ω0 = 2πf0
frequency (rad/sec),

Phasor : X = Aej ψ, x (t) =ΩRe[Xe

0
j

Ω0t
] si
n

cos

sin

Generation of sinusoids from phasors of a frequency Ω0 shown at

initial position
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 90 30
90 120 60
30
20
120 60
150 30
10
20
180 0
150 30
210 330
10
240 300
270

180 0

40

20
210 330
0

−20
240 300

270
−40
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Phasor 1 + Phasor 2

Sum of phasors I1 = 10 ej 0 and I2 = 20 ej π/4 with the result in the top left and the
corresponding sinusoid (right bottom).

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 Phasors and
systems

• Eigenfunction property of LTI systems

Input: x (t) = Re[Xej Ω0t ],input phasor

X = Aej θ
j Ω0t
Output: y (t) = Re[Ye ], output
phasor Y = XH(j Ω0)
• Steady–state response
Input Output
Linear time-invariant
x(t) = A cos(Ω0t + system
y s s (t) = A|H(jΩ0 )| cos(Ω0t + θ + ∠H(jΩ0))
θ)

Frequency response of system

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