Digital Logic Design

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gate

1
 Algebras

• What is an algebra?
– Mathematical system consisting of
• Set of elements, Set of operators, Axioms or postulates

• Example: arithmetic on natural numbers

– Set of elements: N = {1,2,3,4,…}
– Operator: +, –, *
– Axioms: associativity, distributivity, closure, identity
elements, etc.
• Note: operators with two inputs are called binary
– Operator(s) with one input are called unary
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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
• A set is collection of having the same property.
– S: set, x and y: element or event
– For example: S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
• If x = 2, then xS.
• If y = 5, then y S.

• A binary operator defines on a set S of elements is a rule

that assigns, to each pair of elements from S, a unique
element from S.
– For example: given a set S, consider a*b = c and * is a binary
operator.
– If (a, b) through * get c and a, b, cS, then * is a binary operator
of S.
– On the other hand, if * is not a binary operator of S and a, bS,
then c  S.
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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
• The most common postulates used to formulate
various algebraic structures are as follows:
1. Closure: a set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair of
elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique
element of S.
– For example, natural numbers N={1,2,3,...} is closed w.r.t. the binary operator + by
the rule of arithmetic addition, since, for any a, bN, there is a unique cN such
that
• a+b = c
• But operator – is not closed for N, because 2-3 = -1 and 2, 3N, but (-1)N.
2. Associative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative
whenever
– (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, zS
• (x+y)+z = x+(y+z)
3. Commutative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative
whenever
– x * y = y * x for all x, yS
• x+y = y+x
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 BASIC DEFINITIONS

4. Identity element: a set S is said to have an identity element with respect

to a binary operation * on S if there exists an element eS with the
property that
– e * x = x * e = x for every xS
• 0+x = x+0 =x for every xI . I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
• 1*x = x*1 =x for every xI. I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
5. Inverse: a set having the identity element e with respect to the binary
operator to have an inverse whenever, for every xS, there exists an
element yS such that
– x*y=e
• The operator + over I, with e = 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a), since a+(-a) = 0.
6. Distributive law: if * and ． are two binary operators on a set S, * is said
to be distributive over . whenever
– x * (y ． z) = (x * y) ． (x * z)

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 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra

• We need to define algebra for binary values

– Developed by George Boole in 1854
• Huntington postulates for Boolean algebra (1904):
• B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and ．
– Closure with respect to operator + and operator ·
– Identity element 0 for operator + and 1 for operator ·
– Commutativity with respect to + and ·
x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x
– Distributivity of · over +, and + over ·
x·(y+z) = (x·y)+(x·z) and x+(y·z) = (x+y)·(x+z)
» Complement for every element x is x’ with x+x’=1, x·x’=0
– There are at least two elements x,yB such that xy

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 Boolean Algebra

• Terminology:
• Literal: A variable or its complement. We define a literal to be a single
variable within a term, in complemented or uncomplemented form
– Product term: literals connected by •
– Sum term: literals connected by +

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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean
Algebra
• B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and ．
• The rules of operations: AND 、 OR and NOT.
AND OR NOT
x y x．y x y x+y x x'
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

1.Closure (+ and‧)
2.The identity elements
(1) +: 0
(2) ． : 1
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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean
Algebra
3. The commutative laws
4. The distributive laws

y+ x． x． (x ． y)+
x y z x．z
z (y+z) y (x ． z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean
Algebra
5. Complement
– x+x'=1 → 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1
– x ． x'=0 → 0 ． 0'=0 ． 1=0; 1 ． 1'=1 ． 0=0
6. Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1

• Note
– A set of two elements
– + : OR operation; ． : AND operation
– A complement operator: NOT operation
– Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra
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 Duality
• The principle of duality says that if an expression is valid in
Boolean algebra, the dual of that expression is also valid.
• To form the dual of an expression, replace all + operators
with . operators, all . operators with + operators, all ones
with zeros, and all zeros with ones.
• Form the dual of the expression
a + (bc) = (a + b)(a + c)
• Following the replacement rules…
a(b + c) = ab + ac
• Take care not to alter the location of the parentheses if they
are present.

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 Basic Theorems

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 Boolean Theorems
• Huntington’s postulates define some rules
Post. 1:
closure
Post. 2:
(a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3:
(a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4:
(a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
• Need more rules to modify Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
algebraic expressions
– Theorems that are derived from postulates
• What is a theorem?
– A formula or statement that is derived from postulates
(or other proven theorems)
• Basic theorems of Boolean algebra
– Theorem 1 (a): x + x = x (b): x · x = x
– Looks straightforward, but needs to be proven !
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 Proof of x+x=x
• We can only use Huntington postulates:
Huntington postulates:
Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
• Show that x+x=x.
x+x = (x+x)·1 by 2(b)
= (x+x)(x+x’) by 5(a)
= x+xx’ by 4(b)
= x+0 by 5(b)
=x by 2(a)
Q.E.D.
• We can now use Theorem 1(a) in future proofs
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 Proof of x·x=x
Huntington postulates:

• Similar to previous Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x

Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
proof Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
• Show that x·x = x. Th. 1: (a) x+x=x

x·x = xx+0 by 2(a)

= xx+xx’ by 5(b)
= x(x+x’) by 4(a)
= x·1 by 5(a)
=x by 2(b)
Q.E.D.
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 Proof of x+1=1
• Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1 Huntington postulates:

x + 1 = 1 ． (x + 1) by 2(b) Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x

Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
=(x + x')(x + 1) 5(a)
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
= x + x' 1 4(b)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x
= x + x' 2(b)
=1 5(a)
• Theorem 2(b): x ． 0 = 0 by duality
• Theorem 3: (x')' = x
– Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' = 1 and
x x' = 0
– The complement of x' is x is also (x')'
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 Absorption Property (Covering)
Huntington postulates:
• Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x
– x + xy = x ． 1 + xy by 2(b) Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
= x (1 + y) 4(a) Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
= x (y + 1) 3(a) Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
=x．1 Th 2(a) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
=x Post.
2(b) 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x
• Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality
• By means of truth table (another way to proof )

x y xy x+x
y
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
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 DeMorgan’s Theorem
• Theorem 5(a): (x + y)’ = x’y’
• Theorem 5(b): (xy)’ = x’ + y’
• By means of truth table

x y x’ y’ x+y (x+y) x’y’ xy x’+y' (xy)’

’
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

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 Consensus Theorem

1. xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2. (x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) -- (dual)
• Proof:
xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
= xy + x’z
QED (2 true by duality).

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 Operator Precedence

• The operator precedence for evaluating

Boolean Expression is
– Parentheses
– NOT
– AND
– OR
• Examples
– x y' + z
– (x y + z)'
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 Boolean Functions
• A Boolean function
– Binary variables
– Binary operators OR and AND
– Unary operator NOT
– Parentheses
• Examples
– F1= x y z'
– F2 = x + y'z
– F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'
– F4 = x y' + x' z
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 Boolean Functions
 The truth table of 2n entries

x y z F1 F2 F3 F4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
• Two Boolean expressions may specify the same function
– F3 = F4
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 Boolean Functions
• Implementation with logic gates
– F4 is more economical

F2 = x + y'z

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F4 = x y' + x' z

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 Algebraic Manipulation
• To minimize Boolean expressions
– Literal: a primed or unprimed variable (an input to a gate)
– Term: an implementation with a gate
– The minimization of the number of literals and the number of
terms → a circuit with less equipment
– It is a hard problem (no specific rules to follow)
• Example 2.1
1. x(x'+y) = xx' + xy = 0+xy = xy
2. x+x'y = (x+x')(x+y) = 1 (x+y) = x+y
3. (x+y)(x+y') = x+xy+xy'+yy' = x(1+y+y') = x
4. xy + x'z + yz = xy + x'z + yz(x+x') = xy + x'z + yzx + yzx' = xy(1+z) +
x'z(1+y) = xy +x'z
5. (x+y)(x'+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x'+z), by duality from function 4.
(consensus theorem with duality)
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 Complement of a Function
• An interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value of F
– By DeMorgan's theorem
– (A+B+C)' = (A+X)' let B+C = X
= A'X' by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'(B+C)' substitute B+C = X
= A'(B'C') by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'B'C' by theorem 4(b) (associative)
• Generalizations: a function is obtained by interchanging AND
and OR operators and complementing each literal.
– (A+B+C+D+ ... +F)' = A'B'C'D'... F'
– (ABCD ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+D' ... +F'

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 Examples

• Example 2.2

– F1' = (x'yz' + x'y'z)' = (x'yz')' (x'y'z)' = (x+y'+z) (x+y+z')

– F2' = [x(y'z'+yz)]' = x' + (y'z'+yz)' = x' + (y'z')' (yz)‘
= x' + (y+z) (y'+z')
= x' + yz‘+y'z
• Example 2.3:
• a simpler procedure
– Take the dual of the function and complement each literal
1. F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z.
The dual of F1 is (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+z).
Complement each literal: (x+y'+z)(x+y+z') = F1'
2. F2 = x(y' z' + yz).
The dual of F2 is x+(y'+z') (y+z).
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Complement each literal: x'+(y+z)(y' +z') = F2'
 2.6 Canonical and Standard
Forms
Minterms and Maxterms
• A minterm (standard product): an AND term
consists of all literals in their normal form or in
their complement form.
– For example, two binary variables x and y,
• xy, xy', x'y, x'y'

– It is also called a standard product.

– n variables can be combined to form 2 n minterms.
• A maxterm (standard sums): an OR term
– It is also call a standard sum.
– 2n maxterms.
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 Minterms and Maxterms
 Each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding
minterm, and vice versa.

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 Minterms and Maxterms
• An Boolean function can be expressed by
– A truth table
– Sum of minterms
– f1 = x'y'z + xy'z' + xyz = m1 + m4 +m7 (Minterms)
– f2 = x'yz+ xy'z + xyz'+xyz = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7 (Minterms)

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 Minterms and Maxterms

• The complement of a Boolean function

– The minterms that produce a 0
– f1' = m0 + m2 +m3 + m5 + m6= x'y'z'+x'yz'+x'yz+xy'z+xyz'
– f1 = (f1')'
= (x+y+z)(x+y'+z) (x+y'+z') (x'+y+z')(x'+y'+z)
= M0 M2 M3 M5 M6
– f2 = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)=M0M1M2M4
• Any Boolean function can be expressed as
– A sum of minterms (“sum” meaning the ORing of terms).
– A product of maxterms (“product” meaning the ANDing
of terms).
– Both boolean functions are said to be in Canonical form.
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 Sum of Minterms

• Sum of minterms: there are 2n minterms and 22n

combinations of function with n Boolean variables.
• Example 2.4: express F = A+B’C as a sum of minterms.
– F = A+B'C = A (B+B') + B'C = AB +AB' + B'C = AB(C+C') +
AB'(C+C') + (A+A')B'C = ABC+ABC'+AB'C+AB'C'+A'B'C
– F = A'B'C +AB'C' +AB'C+ABC'+ ABC = m1 + m4 +m5 + m6 + m7
– F(A, B, C) = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
– or, built the truth table first

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 Product of Maxterms
• Product of maxterms: using distributive law
to expand.
– x + yz = (x + y)(x + z) = (x+y+zz')(x+z+yy') = (x+y+z)
(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)
• Example 2.5: express F = xy + x'z as a product
of maxterms.
– F = xy + x'z = (xy + x')(xy +z) = (x+x')(y+x')(x+z)
(y+z) = (x'+y)(x+z)(y+z)
– x'+y = x' + y + zz' = (x'+y+z)(x'+y+z')
– F = (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)(x'+y+z') = M0M2M4M5
– F(x, y, z) = (0, 2, 4, 5)
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 Conversion between Canonical Forms
• The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterms equals
the sum of minterms missing from the original function.
– F(A, B, C) = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
– Thus, F'(A, B, C) = (0, 2, 3)
– By DeMorgan's theorem
F(A, B, C) = (0, 2, 3)
F'(A, B, C) =(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
– mj' = Mj
– Sum of minterms = product of maxterms
– Interchange the symbols  and  and list those numbers missing
from the original form
•  of 1's
•  of 0's

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 • Example
– F = xy + xz
– F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 6, 7)-----minterm form
– F(x, y, z) =  (0, 2, 4, 5)-----maxterm form

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 Standard Forms
• Canonical forms are very seldom the ones
with the least number of literals.
• Standard forms: the terms that form the
function may obtain one, two, or any number
of literals.
– Sum of products: F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz'
– Product of sums: F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')
– F3 = A'B'CD+ABC'D'

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 Implementation
• Two-level implementation

F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz' F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')

• Multi-level implementation

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 2.7 Other Logic Operations
• 2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables.
• 22n functions for n binary variables.
• 16 functions of two binary variables.
• All the new symbols except for the exclusive-OR symbol are
not in common use by digital designers.

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 Boolean Expressions

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 2.8 Digital Logic Gates
• Boolean expression: AND, OR and NOT
operations
• Constructing gates of other logic operations
– The feasibility and economy;
– The possibility of extending gate's inputs;
– The basic properties of the binary operations
(commutative and associative);
– The ability of the gate to implement Boolean
functions.

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 Standard Gates
• Consider the 16 functions in Table 2.8 (slide 33)
– Two are equal to a constant (F0 and F15).
– Four with unary operations: complement and
transfer (F3, F5, F10 and F12).
(F3=x, F5=y, F10=y’, F12=x’)
– Ten functions with binary operators
• Inhibition (F2 and F4) and implication (F11 and F13) are not
commutative or associative. (seldom used in computer
logic)
• The other six: AND (F1), OR (F7), NAND (F14), NOR (F8), XOR
(F6), and equivalence (XNOR) (F9) are used as standard
gates.
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 Summary of Logic Gates

May 21, 2025 Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates 41

 Summary of Logic Gates

May 21, 2025 Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates 42

 Multiple Inputs
• Extension to multiple inputs
– A gate can be extended to multiple inputs.
• If its binary operation is commutative and associative.

– AND and OR are commutative and associative.

• OR
– x+y = y+x
– (x+y)+z = x+(y+z) = x+y+z
• AND
– xy = yx
– (x y)z = x(y z) = x y z

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 Multiple Inputs
– NAND and NOR are commutative but not
associative → they are not extendable.

Figure 2.6 Demonstrating the nonassociativity of the NOR operator;

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(x ↓ y) ↓ z ≠ x ↓(y ↓ z) 44
 Multiple Inputs
– Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate,
Multiple NAND = a complement of AND.
– The cascaded NAND operations = sum of
products.
– The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums.

May 21, 2025

Figure 2.7 Multiple-input and cascated NOR and NAND gates 45
 Multiple Inputs
– The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and
associative.
– Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon?
– XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the
inputs variables have an odd number of 1's.

May 21, 2025 Figure 2.8 3-input XOR gate 46

 Positive and Negative Logic
• Positive and Negative
Logic
– Two signal values <=> two
logic values
– Positive logic: H=1; L=0
– Negative logic: H=0; L=1
• Consider a TTL gate
– A positive logic AND gate
– A negative logic OR gate
– The positive logic is used in
this book
May 21, 2025
Figure 2.9 Signal assignment and logic polarity
47
 Positive and Negative Logic

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Figure 2.10 Demonstration of positive and negative logic
 Digital Logic Families
• Digital logic families: circuit technology
– TTL: transistor-transistor logic (dying?)
– ECL: emitter-coupled logic (high speed, high
power consumption)
– MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS, high
density)
– CMOS: complementary MOS (low power)
– BiCMOS: high speed, high density

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 Digital Logic Families
• The characteristics of digital logic families
– Fan-out: the number of standard loads that the
output of a typical gate can drive.
– Power dissipation.
– Propagation delay: the average transition delay
time for the signal to propagate from input to
output.
– Noise margin: the minimum of external noise
voltage that caused an undesirable change in the
circuit output.

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