EVOLUTION

PRIMITIVE EARTH

• Nebula separated to form galaxies.

• Among the spinning mass the central mass formed the sun and
clouds condensed to form the planets.
• Original temperature was about 5000 to 6000 degree C.
• Elements like oxygen, carbon and nitrogen could not exist in free
state.
• Thus the atmosphere was composed of ammonia, methane, steam,
carbon-di-oxide and free hydrogen.
 THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

• 1. Theory of Special creation:

• According to this theory all living organisms were created by some

supernatural power.
• These forms were designed according to their surroundings suddenly.
• These have existed unchanged from the time they were formed.
 THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

• 2. Theory of Catastrophism:

• According to this theory the earth has undergone several

catastrophes or destruction.
• After every destruction God created a new living world.
 THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

• 3. Theory of abiogenesis:
• This theory stated that living things originated abiogenetically from non-
living material.
• Anaximander and Aristotle were the profounders of this theory. According to
them, insects arose from dew, frogs and toads from muddy bottom of
ponds, butterflies from cheese etc.
• Van Helmont stated that young mice could arise from wheat grains when
these were put in dark rooms with a moist dirty shirt.
• However, this theory was experimentally rejected.
 THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

• 5. Cosmozoic or interplanetary theory:

• Life came from other planets

• 6. Theory of eternity of life:

No beginning or end to life
OPARIN AND HALDANE’S THEORY OF ORIGIN
OF LIFE
• Life originated in water bodies by chemical evolution.
• Spontaneous generation of life in primitive atmosphere.
• Initial atmosphere, reducing type.
• High temperature, lightening and solar radiations provided energy
required for chemical reactions
• First living beings arose from simple inorganic and organic
compounds.
 HOW COULD LIFE ORIGINALLY ARISE FROM
NON-LIVING MATTER?
• A four-stage hypothesis has been proposed:
• Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules like amino acids and
nucleotides
• Plenty of energy available- abiotic joining of small molecules into
polymers
• Proteins and nucleic acids -Self-replicating molecules arise -Basis for
inheritance
• Packaging into “protobionts” (Remember that lipids self-assemble into
bilayers in an aqueous environment)
 OPARIN AND HALDANE’S THEORY:
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
• 1. Formation of simple organic compounds:
• After cooling, the primitive inorganic molecules of earth interacted and combined with one
another to form simple organic compounds.
• These were in the form of simple sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, amino acids and nitrogen
bases (purines and pyrimidines).
• Water vapour present in the primitive atmosphere formed the clouds, resulting in
continuous rainfall for several centuries.
• This rain water filled the hollows and basins of the earth's crust to form the oceans. Water
in these oceans contained ammonia and methane.
• These compounds reacted among themselves to form the primitive organic compounds,
which had carbon-carbon linkages. Thus, ocean water provided the basis for formation of
organic compounds.
 OPARIN AND HALDANE’S THEORY:
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
• 2. Formation of complex organic compounds
• Simple sugars combined form complex polysaccharides (starch, cellulose).
• Fatty acids and glycerol molecules combined to form lipids.
• Amino acids combined forming polypeptides and proteins. Purines and pyrimidines
combined with simple sugars and phosphates to form nucleotides, which then
formed nucleic acids.
 MILLERS EXPERIMENT

• Miller and Urey recreated probable conditions of primitive earth in

the laboratory.
• The effect of lightening of primitive atmosphere was created by two
tungsten electrodes connected to an electric source.
• A large flask was connected to a small U tube passing through a
condensor.
• A chamber containing HYDROGEN, AMMONIA, METHANE AND WATER
VAPOUR was created representing the primitive atmosphere.
 MILLERS EXPERIMENT

• Another chamber with water was kept that connected to the atmospheric
chamber by a tube. This chamber was provided heat by a burner and this
represented the oceanic chamber.
• The vapours from the oceanic chamber reached the atmospheric
chamber and the condensed liquid was collected.
• This liquid when tested contained amino acids.This confirmed the
possibility of chemical origin.
• These then formed complex molecules by condensation and
polymerisation.
 OPARIN AND HALDANE’S THEORY:
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
• 3. Formation of molecular aggregates (Coacervates):
• Oparin and Fox proposed that the complex organic molecules
synthesised abiotically on the primitive earth formed large spherical
aggregates.
• These remained suspended as droplets in sea water.
• These colloidal aggregates are called COACERVATES.
• Coacervates are cluster of complex organic molecules bound by
fatty acids and divide by budding.
 OPARIN AND HALDANE’S THEORY:
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
• 4.Formation of first primitive living cell:
• The coacervates had all the basic properties of living cells like,
metabolism, growth etc.
• However they lacked the complexity of the living cells like, ETS,
enzymes etc.
• Thus these particles with proteins as enzymes and ATP as source of
energy were the first abiotic structures at the margin of non-living
and living.
 IS ABIOTIC SYNTHESIS POSSIBLE
TODAY?
• It is not possible today.
• Reasons-
• Reducing atmosphere is essential.
• Free oxygen would destroy most intermediate products.
• Today life comes from pre-existing life.
INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISMS

• According to the theory of evolution, all present day organisms have evolved
from simple forms that existed in the past.
• Despite the diversity in organisms, all living beings exhibit basic unity in both
structure and life processes.
• This indicates that all living organisms have evolved from a common ancestor.
• All these similarities indicate that organisms have evolved from one common
ancestor. This is called Monophyletic orgin.
• This process has occurred resulting in more than a million species from one
common ancestor and is described as "descent with modification".
INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISMS

• The descent with modification states that:

• first organisms to appear were unicellular.
• Multicellular organisms evolved from the unicellular organisms.
• The earliest organisms were simple forms and gradually evolved and
became complex organisms.
EVIDENCES FROM MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY: HOMOLOGY
• Structures that are embryologically similar, but have different functions, are called
homologous structures.
• They have different appearance, perform different functions but have common
origin and same basic pattern.
• This phenomenon of similarity between organs of different animals having common
origin is called Homology.
• Homology of fore limbs- Consider forelimbs of whale (flippers), bat (wings), bird
(wings), horse and man.
• This supports divergent evolution
 EVIDENCES FROM MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY: HOMOLOGY

• The forelimbs of whale is modified for swimming, the fore limbs of birds and bats are
modified for flying, horse for running and man for grasping.
• The functions of the fore limbs of these animals are completely different and they also
differ in their external appearance.
• However they have the same pentadactyl pattern, with almost the same skeletal
elements or bones (humerus, radius-ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges), muscles,
nerves and blood vessels arranged on the same pattern.
• The existence of homology in the structural plan of limbs of vertebrates can be explained
on the basis that all of them have evolved from common ancestors.
• Thus, homology in structural organisation provides a convincing evidence for the concept
of descent with modification.
 EVIDENCES FROM MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY: ANALOGY
• Analogous organs perform the same function and have almost similar appearance, but they
develop in totally different groups and have different basic structure.
• Thus, analogy is the superficial similarity in appearance between organs of different animal
groups because they carry out the same function.
• Analogy in wings
• The wings of an insect (dragonfly), bird (eagle), mammal (bat) and reptile (Prerodacryle), perform
the same function of assisting in the flight but differ considerably in their structure.
• The wings of an insect are just extensions of body wall without any skeletal support, the wings of
ptrerodactyle and bat are skin folds supported by fingers and the wings of a bird are modified
forelimbs.
• This shows that these organs have developed to perform the same function in response to the
same need but their basic architecture is different because these belong to different groups of
animals.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HOMOLOGOUS
AND ANALOGOUS ORGANS
S.
Homologous organs Analogous organs
No.
Are adapted to perform different
1 Are adapted to perform similar functions
functions

2 have different appearances have similar appearances

3 have same basic structural plan have different basic structures

4 have common origin have different origin

5 exhibit divergent evolution exhibit convergent evolution

6 ex- fore limbs of vertebrates ex- wings of bird, bat and insect.
 EVIDENCES FROM MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY: VESTIGIAL ORGANS

• Organs that are rudimentary or poorly developed, non-functional or

useless to the possessor but were functional in the ancestors are
called vestigial organs.
• Those organs are thought to have been functional in the ancestral
species but to have since become unnecessary and non-functional.
• Examples: In man--- Nictitating membrane, ear muscles, vermiform
appendix etc.
 EVIDENCES FROM MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY: PALEONTOLOGY

• The fossils are the preserved remains of animals, plants or their parts found in various
strata of earth.
• Fossils may be of entire organisms or a part which got buried, a mould or cast, foot
prints or imprints of a leaf on a stone.
• Significance of study of fossils
• 1. Distribution in successive strata- when fossils are arranged from old to recent,
there is gradual successive changes.
• These changes show that ancient fossils are simple forms and the recent ones in the
upper strata are highly evolved. The highly evolved fossils or the fossils of man are
found in the recent rocks.
 EVIDENCES FROM MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY: PALEONTOLOGY

• 2.Missing links– There are fossils (extinct organisms) that had characters of two
adjoining phyla (groups) and are called transitional fossils.
• Eg. Archaeopteryx--- link between Reptiles and Birds.
• 3.Connecting links-- The present day living organism having characters of
organisms of two adjoining phyla (group). These animals establish continuity in
the series by proving that one group has evolved from the other.
• Eg. Protopterus or lung fishes show characters of Fishes and Amphibians, paired
fins and dermal scales like fishes and 3 chambered heart and lungs for breathing
air like amphibians.
 EVIDENCES FROM MORPHOLOGY AND
ANATOMY: EMBRYOLOGY
• Similarity in vertebrate embryos: The
embryos of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, aves
and mammals resemble closely in the early
stages.
• In fact it is difficult to distinguish them. Show
presence of similar head with rudiments of eyes
and ears.
• Possess pharyngeal clefts, notochord and
embryonic tail. Notochord is replaced by
vertebral column in all vertebrate embryos
 EVIDENCES FROM MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY: EMBRYOLOGY

• Recapitulation theory-
• This was proposed by Von Baer, and revised and renamed BIOGENETIC LAW by
Ernst Haeckel.
• This states that "Ontogeny repeats phylogeny", an organism during its
embryonic development repeats in an abbreviated form the evolutionary history
of an individual.
• Example- Development of frog--- The tadpole shows fish-like characters, gills, tail
with tail-fin and lateral line.
• This suggests that frogs evolved from fishes. Appearance of filamentous
protonema during the development of moss and fern.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: LAMARCKISM
• Changes in the structure or function of any organ acquired during the life time of
an individual in response to changes in the environment are inherited by the
offspring and keep on adding over a period of time. These changes lead to the
origin of new species.
• This was given by JEAN LAMARCK as the theory of acquired characters.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: LAMARCKISM
• Changes in the structure or function of any organ acquired during the life time of
an individual in response to changes in the environment are inherited by the
offspring and keep on adding over a period of time. These changes lead to the
origin of new species.
• This was given by JEAN LAMARCK as the theory of acquired characters.
• LAMARKS POSTULATES:
1.New needs: There are changes occurring in the environment that creates new
needs, these allow them to adapt better to the changed environment. These
efforts lead to a change in habits or behaviour.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: LAMARCKISM
• 2.Acquisition of new characters or organs: the new characters can be acquired in
two ways-
• By use and disuse of organs. Continuous use or disuse of an organ can lead to the
keep the organs functional and efficient or a gradual reduction in size and
disappearance. Example of such structures are the vestigial organs.
• Effect of environment. Changes in temperature, light, medium, food etc. influence the
functioning and behavior of the organisms. These changes in functioning and behavior
changes lead to development of new characters.
• 3.Inheritance of acquired characters. The characters acquired by the organism are
inherited to the next generation. Thus in every generation new characters are added
and the species gets modified to a new one.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: LAMARCKISM
• CRITICISM OF LAMARCKISM
• 1.The tendency to increase in size can be seen in many forms, however evolution also
shows reduction in size. For example, in Angiosperms, the trees are primitive forms
whereas shrubs, herbs and grasses evolved later and are more advanced. Moreover,
persons constantly using an organ does not necessarily strengthen it, for example
people busy in reading and writing and using their eyes more than others, often
develop impaired sight.
• 2.Inheritance of acquired characters: For example, if any of the parent becomes blind
or deaf or lame before producing the offspring, they do not produce blind, deaf or lame
offspring. Mutilations and wounds of parents do not appear in the offsprings. Small feet
in Chinese women, piercing of nose and ears in Indian women are age old customs, yet
these have no hereditary effect. The strong muscles of a wrestler are not inherited by
his children.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: LAMARCKISM
• 3. Another major criticism was based on the experiment performed by AUGUST
WEISMANN, he had cut off the tails of rats for about 80 generations, but tailless
offsprings were never born.
• 4.Theory of germplasm– ‘Theory of continuity of germplasm’ proposed by Weismann
(1892) and Mendel’s laws of Inheritance were hard blow to Lamarck’s theory of
inheritance of acquired characters. According to germplasm theory, each organism has
two types of cells:
• (a) Germ cells, which pass on their hereditary material to next generation and are
found in gonads.
• (b) Somatic cells, which form the body and do not pass their hereditary material to the
offsprings.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: DARWINISM
• 1.CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN– origin of species by natural selection.
• 2.Theory of natural selection was announced by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel
Wallace.
• 3.Theory was based on– animals and plants in Galapagos islands, observation on animal
distribution, analysis from data in essay of human population and controlled breeding
and artificial selection in domestic animals.
• Darwin's postulates
• 1.Overproduction: All living beings have an inherent tendency to produce offspring of
their own kind in large number for the perpetuation of their race. The number of their
offspring is much more than can be supported by a particular environment and can
possibly survive. For example: A Paramecium divides three times in 48 hours. If all its
offspring survive and multiply, in five years the mass of paramecia will be equal to ten
thousand times the mass of earth.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: DARWINISM
• 2.There is limited food and space on earth. The ultimate source of food for plants and
animals also remains constant. Thus, the carrying capacity of the environment does
not allow the population to grow indefinitely. Inspite of enormous reproductive
potential of living beings under natural conditions the number of individuals of each
species remains nearly constant over a long period of time.
• 3.Struggle for existence–According to Darwin individuals multiply in geometric ratio
whereas space and food availability remains constant, so there is an intense
competition and three fold struggle for existence. The struggle is intraspecific,
interspecific and with the environment.
• (a) Struggle with the environment: This struggle of living beings is with the changes of
environment such as heat, cold, drought, flood, storm, famine, light, food and shelter,
etc.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: DARWINISM
• (b) Interspecific struggle: This is the struggle between the individuals of different
species.
• (c) Intraspecific struggle : This is struggle between the individuals of the same species.
This is the toughest form of struggle as the needs of the individuals of the same
species are identical.
• 4.Variations: The struggle for existence results in competition among the organisms.
Thus the organisms adapt and differ from each other in shape, size, behaviuor etc.
Variation is the law of nature. This leads them to change in accordance with the
conditions to utilise the natural resources and survive successfully.
• 5.Natural selection and survival of the fittest. According to Darwin nature selects only
those individuals which are with more favourable variations and are best adapted to
the environment. The less fit and unfit organisms are left out by selection. This sorting
out of individuals with useful variations was called natural selection by Darwin and
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION: DARWINISM
• It was supported by elongation of Neck of Giraffe through various generations.
• 6.Inheritance of useful variations: The individuals which survive the struggle for existence
transmit their useful variations to the offspring, which will also prove to be fit. Thus
offsprings of selected individual are born fit to the environment.
• 7.Formation or origin of new species. Darwin suggested the appearance of new variations
in every generation. These variations keep on accumulating and after a number of
generations, the offsprings become markedly different forming a new species. Origin of
new species by gradual modification of older ones is called speciation.
 CONCEPT OF SPECIES
• Geographically localized group of individuals of the same kind at a particular time
represents a population and the sum of all the populations of the same kind form a
species. Species consists of individuals that share the same gene pool.
• Speciation or origin of new SPECIES
• Speciation is the process which new species are formed.
• An interbreeding population which is reproductively isolated from other similar but
morphologically distinguishable population is called as species.
• Mechanisms that reduce the chances of interbreeding in related species of living
organisms is called isolating mechanisms.
 CONCEPT OF SPECIES
• Geographical isolation (physical barriers)
Geographic or Spatial Isolation is when a population of organisms is split up due to
geography, and then face different selection pressures.
• Ethological isolation (behavioral difference)
Development of differences in mating or courtship behavior of some individuals of the
same species
• Temporal isolation (different breeding season)
Species may breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years, and
this can prevent them from mating. ex.Three tropical orchid species of the genus
Dendrobium each flower for a single day; the flowers open at dawn and wither by
nightfall.
•
 CONCEPT OF SPECIES

• Mechanical isolation(structure of genitilia)

Snails that have different spirals are not able to mate due to change
in structure of genetilia.
 CONCEPT OF
SPECIES
• Allopatric and Sympatric
speciations
• Allopatric are those which
inhabit different areas,
whereas sympatric are those
which occupy the same
geographical area.
• Allopatric speciation is usually
shown by the animal
population.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SYMPATRIC AND
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
S.
Sympatric speciation Allopatric speciation
No.
It occurs in population that occupy It occurs in population that occurs in
1
the same geographical area. different geographical area
It occurs in different populations by
It occurs by sudden reproductive
2 gradual accumulation of variations and
isolations
mutations
These are isolated by ecological, These are isolated by geographical
3
ethological or genetic isolations barriers
4 Sympatric speciation is sudden Allopatric speciation is gradual

5 exhibit divergent evolution exhibit convergent evolution

6 ex- fore limbs of vertebrates ex- wings of bird, bat and insect.
 MICROEVOLUTION

• Changes in the gene pool of a population over time which result in

relatively small changes to the organisms in the population —
changes which would not result in the newer organisms being
considered as different species.
• Examples of such microevolutionary changes would include a
change in a species’ coloring or size.
 MACROEVOLUTION

• Changes in organisms which are significant enough that, over time,

the newer organisms would be considered an entirely new species.
In other words, the new organisms would be unable to mate with
their ancestors, assuming we were able to bring them together.
 HUMAN EVOLUTION

• Factors responsible for human evolution

• •Increased aridity of climate.
• •Dwindling of forests and replacement by grasslands
• •Reduction in number of trees.
 HUMAN EVOLUTION

• CHARACTERS THAT DIFFERENTIATE

HUMANS AND APES
• 1. Erect posture
 HUMAN
EVOLUTION
• CHARACTERS THAT
DIFFERENTIATE HUMANS
AND APES
• 2. Bipedalism
 HUMAN EVOLUTION

• CHARACTERS THAT DIFFERENTIATE

HUMANS AND APES
• 3. Opposable thumb
 HUMAN EVOLUTION
• Some Other characters
• Development of distinct lumbar curve.
• Development of broad pelvic bones
• Acetabular cavities shifted inside, hind limbs to support body weight.
• Increase in size of cranial cavity
• Flattening of face
 HUMAN EVOLUTION
• Straightening of forehead
• Narrowing of nose
• Thinning of jaw bones
• Reduction in jaw musculature
• Reduction in size of cannines
• Loss of tail
• Articulated speech
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Dryopithecus
• The fossils were discovered from rocks of Miocene age(20 mya).
• These resembled the great apes. Their arms and legs were of equal length.
• They had semi-erect posture, large canines, and without brow ridges.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Australopithecus (African ape man)
• Two million years ago fossil baby skull called Tuang baby was discovered by
Raymond Dart and named it (Australopithecus africanus).
• Australopithecus were about 150cm and its skull was like that was like that
of modern apes with cranial capacity of 600cc. They lived during Pliocene
and the Pleistocene in Africa.
• Another species of Australopithecus fossil “Lucy” was discovered by Donald
Johanson in 1976.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Simian characters:
• Small in size, average height- 4feet
• Face prognathous.
• Chin absent, forehead low.
• Bulge of occipital region small.
• Eyebrow ridges projected over the eyes.
• Cranial capacity about 600 cc
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Human characters:
• Walked completely straight
• Vertebral column with distinct lumbar curve
• Pelvis broad and basin like.
• Teeth man-like with dental arch in the form of parabola.
• Simian gap between incisors and canine absent.
• Canines man-like and did not project beyond the level of other teeth.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Advanced Australopithecus - Homo habilis
• The fossils of Homo habilis or the handy man was discovered by Louis
Leakey in 1960.
These were found in rocks 1.6 to 1.8 million years old in east Africa.
They were slightly more advanced than Australopithecus.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Characters-
• They were 120 -150cm tall.
• They had cranial capacity of 730cc.
• They had human like body with an ape like head.
• They walked erect with bipedal gait.
• They lived in caves were herbivores and used tools of stones to dig out tubers and
led community life.
• They are regarded as the last of the Australopithecus.
• They originated about 3.5 million years ago.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Homo erectus erectus (Java ape man)
• The fossil was discovered by Eugene Dubois, in 1891. Dubois named the fossils as
Pithecanthropus erectus or Java ape man. later it was renamed as Homo erectus by
Mayer (1950) .They lived 1.7million years ago (Pleistocene) on the banks of Solo river in
Java.
• Characters-
• They stood upright to a height of 150cms.
• They had receding forehead with prominent brow ridges
• The jaws were prognathous without a distinct chin.
• The cranial capacity was 900cc.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• They were hunters and food gatherers, used stone tools for hunting, lived
in caves, learned the use of fire for cooking and used animal skin for
clothing themselves and probably used sign language.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man)
• Fossil was discovered by C. Fuhirott in 1856.
• They arose about 1,00,000 years ago and became extinct 25,000 years
ago.
• Characters-
• Thick skull bones.
• Low slanting forehead.
• Strong lower jaw muscles and no chin.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Short of stature 1.5 to 1.6m height.
• Semi erect stooping posture.
• Cranial capacity of 1450cc.
• They used flint tools and animal skin for clothing. They buried the dead and
performed ceremonies and constructed dwelling structures.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Homo sapiens fossilis (Early modern man or Cro-magnon man)
• Fossil was discovered by Mac Gregor in 1868 from the caves of north west Italy.
• They originated 50,000 years ago and existed for about 30,000 years. They became extinct 10-20 thousand years
ago.
• Characters-
• They were about 1.8m tall.
• They had perfect posture.
• The cranial capacity was 1660 cc.
• They are prominent chin and narrow elevated nose.
• Face was prognathous.
• They were cave dwellers and hunters, they buried the dead and could make paint. They learnt to shape stones and
bones into excellent tools. They had religious beliefs and burial customs. They developed the paleolithic culture.
HUMAN EVOLUTION: HUMAN ANCESTORS
• Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern man) It is the living modern man, evolved 25 thousand
years ago.
• Their evolution includes cultural evolution rather than anatomical evolution. He learned to
cultivate plants and domesticate animals. Modern man is associated with neolithic culture.
They settled down near lakes and ocean shores to catch fishes, and also started domesticating
plants and animals.
• The modern man is known to have appeared around the Caspian sea and evolved into
following races-
• Negroid- Africa and Malaysia.
• Caucasian- Europe and North America.
• Mongoloids- China, Siberia and Japan