Water Pollution and Agriculture
4.1. Introduction
Most human activities whether domestic, agricultural or industrial have an impact
on water and the ecosystems. Water pollution, a major global environmental issue,
has also assumed a serious threat to sustainable development in India. World
Health Organization statistics indicate that half of India's morbidity is water
related. About 70% of India’s surface water resources and a growing percentage of
its groundwater reserves are contaminated by biological, toxic, organic and
inorganic pollutants due to mismanaged disposal of industrial effluents, domestic
wastes and agricultural pollutants. In many cases, these sources have been rendered
unsafe for human consumption as well as for other activities such as irrigation and
industrial needs. Water pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into
the water in large quantities which cause damage to people, wildlife or habitat.
Besides, natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms and
earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of
water.
On the basis of nature of the source, pollutant sources are categorized as point and
nonpoint sources. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a
waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Nonpoint
source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source and is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of
contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of
nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. This Chapter assesses the
extent of water pollution in India, the relationship of water pollution and
agriculture, technologies to control agricultural water pollution and technologies
for safe use of polluted water in agriculture, besides highlighting the present and
proposed policy framework for water pollution control.
4.2 Extent of Water Pollution in India
4.2.1 Surface water pollution
Water quality monitoring carried out by Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) at 1700 stations located all over India indicate that organic and bacterial
contamination was critical in the water bodies. The main cause for such
contamination is discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater in water bodies
mostly in an untreated form from urban centers.
According to a CPCB report 2012, about 38,000 million litres per day (MLD) of
wastewater is generated in the urban centres having population more than
50,000 in India (housing more than 70% of urban population). The municipal
wastewater treatment capacity developed so far in
India is about 11,000 MLD accounting for 29% of wastewater generation in
these two classes of urban centers (CPCB, 2010). It is estimated that the
projected wastewater from urban centers may cross 1,00,000 MLD by 2050 and
the rural India will also generate no less than 50,000 MLD in view of water
supply designs for communities in rural areas. There are 0.32 million small-
scale industrial units which contribute almost 40% of the industrial water
pollution in India. Approximately 515 million liters of sewage waste water is
reported to be discharged in the river Yamuna daily. Even in Ganga, the most
sacred river to Indians is polluted heavily. Out of a total of 12411 MLD sewage
generated in the Ganga basin, 10736 MLD finds its way to the river either
directly or through its tributaries (CPCB 2010). In view of population increase,
demand of freshwater for all the uses will be unmanageable. Contrarily, waste
water management is not progressing at a pace that can address the problem in
foreseeable future.
4.2.2 Groundwater pollution
While several studies have documented the nitrate pollution of ground water,
aquifers in vast tracts of India are now contaminated with other contaminants such
as boron, fluoride, arsenic iron and even uranium as has been reported in ground
water of Punjab. Fluoride problems exist in 150 districts in 17 states in the country
with Odisha and Rajasthan being the most severely affected (Murthy and Kumar
2011). The incidence of fluoride above permissible levels of 1.5 ppm has been
reported from 14 Indian states, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal affecting a total of 69 districts.
According to some estimates, 65% of Indian villages are exposed to potential risk
of fluoride pollution (UNICEF, 1999).
Presence of salts above the threshold levels is also a serious water
pollutant. High levels of salinity are reported from 73 districts in various states.
Presence of heavy metals in groundwater is found in 40 districts from 13 states
namely, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal. Iron content above permissible level is found in 23
districts from 4 states namely, Bihar, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and
coastal Odisha and parts of Agartala valley in Tripura.
Agricultural activities also contribute to groundwater contamination through
leaching of harmful compounds, having affected as many as 19 states in India
(Kumar and Shah, 2014). The pollution problems due to various contaminants
are depicted in Fig. 4.1 (A, B, C and D). The most important issue in ground
water pollution is that it is out of sight unlike the surface water bodies. Once
ground water is contaminated, it may pose severe techno-economic problems to
clean up and might take many years for the contamination to dissipate or be
cleaned up.
4.2.3. Arsenic contamination of ground water
Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring element in the earth's crust and is
found throughout the environment. Increased As concentration in groundwater is
generally associated with geogenic sources and has positive interaction with soil
minerals. Of late, As contamination of groundwater in the Bengal delta basin of
the Indian sub-tropics and Bangladesh, bound by the rivers Ganga and Padma, has
caused great concern since the latter affects the soil-plant- animal/human system.
Its severe toxicity and increased appearance in the biosphere has triggered public
and political concern. Out of 20 countries (covering Argentina, Chile, Finland,
Hungary, Mexico, Nepal, Taiwan, Bangladesh, India and others) in different parts
of the world where groundwater arsenic contamination and human suffering
there from have been reported so far, the magnitude is considered to be the
highest in Bangladesh, followed by West Bengal, India, covering a geographic
area of 0.17 million square kilometer and exposing 36 million people in the
Bengal delta basin to risk (Sanyal et al. 2014). Even beyond the Bengal delta
basin, arsenic contamination in ground water above the permissible limit (50 µg l -
1
) has been detected at several places and more and more areas are being affected
(Table 4.1).
4.3. Water Pollution from Agriculture
Intensification of agricultural activities with increasing use of
fertilizers and pesticides and allied livestock activities has an adverse impact
on water quality. The main agricultural water pollutants are nitrates,
phosphorus, and pesticides. Rising nitrate concentrations threaten the quality
of drinking water, while high pesticide use contributes substantially to
indirect emissions of toxic substances. Increasing levels of nitrates and
phosphorus in surface waters reduce their ability to support plant and animal
life. Since, agricultural pollution occurs over a wide area and its sources are
diffuse and difficult to identify, it becomes difficult to control the agricultural
water pollution. It also varies unpredictably over time and space and is
governed by rainfall patterns, land slope, soil characteristics, land use and
crop choices, production techniques and the intensity of fertilizer and
pesticide use. Intensive use of chemical fertilizers in farming and
indiscriminate disposal of human and animal waste on land result in leaching
of the residual nitrate causing high nitrate concentrations in groundwater.
Excess nutrients impact surface water quality when water and soil containing
nitrogen and phosphorus flows along with runoff into nearby waters.
The pesticides belong to a category of chemicals used worldwide to control weeds,
pests and diseases in crops. Pesticides cause serious health hazards to living systems
because of their rapid fat solubility and bioaccumulation in non-target organisms. If
these products enter the water system, they may reach non- target animals and pose a
hazard to the lives of other animals (including humans and domestic animals) and non-
target plants.
Another polluting agent from agriculture is sediment load that enters in
streams. Suspended sediment resulting from agricultural fields impairs aquatic life by
reducing sunlight, damaging spawning grounds and becoming toxic to aquatic
organisms.
The foremost implication of water pollution is reduced water availability for
agriculture. With rising levels of water pollution, surface water bodies as well as
groundwater in certain parts of India are becoming unsuitable for agricultural use.
Therefore, water pollution can be viewed as a major driver of water scarcity. Crop
production suffers from use of contaminated irrigation water. High salt concentrations
limit the amount of water a plant can take up, resulting in high plant stress and
decreased crop yields. High concentrations of metals also have negative effects on crop
production. Further, plants can absorb the contaminants present in the wastewater and
pose health risks to the grower as well as to consumers of the wastewater grown
produce (fodder crops, greens and vegetables). Accumulation of toxic compounds such
as heavy metals in soil and plants has been widely reported as a consequence of long-
term non-scientific application of the wastewater.
4.4. Technologies to Control Agricultural Water Pollution
4.4.1. Reducing leaching and erosion of fertilizer
Several technological interventions like optimizing time, methods and
doses of fertilizer application have been developed to reduce the losses of applied
fertilizers and increase nutrient use efficiency (NUE). The improved management
practices of applying fertilizers that matches crop needs and soil fertility status
can significantly reduce the water pollution resulting from fertilizer leaching to
the groundwater. Further, adoption of controlled, delayed and slow-release
fertilizers can minimize the nutrient loss through leaching. Bio-inhibitors are also
available to inhibit the microbial processes that can reduce the N loss and increase
NUE.
4.4.2. Optimal pesticide management practices
The pesticides enter into the water bodies through sediments resulting
from soil erosion, surface runoff or leaching. To reduce the indiscriminate use of
pesticides, crop-specific management practices have been developed to control
pests. Besides, adoption of suitable soil and water conservation measures can
reduce pesticides load in water bodies.
Reduced application of pesticides, bans on certain active ingredients, revised
pesticide registration criteria, training and licensing of individuals that apply
pesticides, reduction of dose and improved scheduling of pesticide application to
more effectively meet crop needs and to reduce preventative spraying, testing
and approval of spraying apparatus, promotion of the use of mechanical and
biological alternatives to pesticides are some practices that need to be
standardized. These management options can have great potential to reduce the
pesticide residues in the soil and their movement in water bodies. Spraying
adjuvants, proper mixing and precise application can reduce the deposition of
pesticides on soil surface and their subsequent leaching to ground water or
streams. Use of electrostatic sprayers that induce positive charge in the pesticide
droplets using a special type of “air-atomizing induction-charging" nozzle, can
also be useful. The positively charged particles gets easily attracted towards the
negatively charged plant leafs helping penetration and spreading of pesticide on
leaf consequently reducing the drift losses of the pesticide.
4.5. Technologies for Safe Use of Polluted Water in Agriculture
The use of sewage water, a cocktail of domestic, industrial and runoff
from rainfall, either treated or untreated is widely used for irrigation especially in
peri-urban areas of most developing countries. As per CPCB estimates, the total
wastewater generation from Class I and Class II towns in the country is around
35,558 and 2,696 MLD respectively. These waters especially the domestic waste
water contains nutrients and organic matter which are beneficially used by the
crops. Studies have shown that crops irrigated with domestic waste water yield
more and the fertilizer requirement to produce the same yield is reduced by about
50%. Major issues of concern, however are due to health of growers and
consumers. To resolve some of these concerns, procedures for preliminary
treatment of wastewater have been developed to make wastewater suitable for
irrigation. Guidelines have been developed to minimize contact of the growers
with irrigation water as well as to avoid contamination of crops. Some practices
such as selection of crops that are eaten cooked, bed planting and furrow
irrigation, conjunctive use of waste and fresh water, withholding irrigation well
in advance of crop harvest, use of drip irrigation preferably subsurface drip
irrigation, switchover to crops that do not enter the food chain such as flowers
and tree plantations can be helpful in mitigating the adverse effects of waste
water.
While selecting crops, go for crops that do not accumulate the contaminant in the
water in their edible parts. In general, leafy vegetables/fodder crops accumulate
greater amounts of certain metals like Cd than non-leafy vegetables. The
accumulation in general increases with increasing concentration of metal in
irrigation water. Considering the increasing volume of water in future, new
alternatives to use such waters are being developed besides fine tuning the existing
practices. The success in using treated waste water for crop production however,
will largely depend on adopting appropriate strategies aimed at optimizing crop
yields, ensuring quality produce, maintaining soil productivity and safeguarding the
environment.
4.5.1. Remedial options for arsenic polluted water
Several remedial options to alleviate the problems of arsenic pollution
have been identified. Some of these include: conjunctive use of ground and surface
water e.g., use of harvested rainwater during the lean period;
selection/development/ identification of low arsenic accumulating high yielding
crops/varieties; irrigation with pond-stored ground water–decontamination/dilution
being facilitated by rainfall and sedimentation; recharging of ground water with
harvested rainwater being free of arsenic,
taking steps to enhance water use efficiency especially for summer (boro) rice;
preferring low-water requiring farmer-attractive cropping sequences, higher doses
of farm yard manure, cultivating green manure crops, inclusion of pulses/other
legumes in the cropping sequences, as well as application of appropriate
amendments (zinc/iron salts as and wherever applicable) and adoption of cost-
effective phyto-remediation options. Creation of general awareness through mass
campaigning, holding of farmers’ day and field demonstrations can be effective in
bringing the technology to the farmers’ door steps.
4.5.2. Saline Water Use in Agriculture
Management practices for the safe use of saline water for irrigation are
primarily categorized in five groups namely crop management, soil/land
management, irrigation water management, chemical management and rainwater
management. One or a combination of these practices allows the use of saline
water for irrigation with minimal adverse impacts on crops and/or soil resource.
Chapter 6 deals with the use of poor quality water in agriculture.
There is an urgent need to prevent pollution of water resources as well as eco-friendly
reuse of the huge waste water that cannot be assimilated by any other sector than
agriculture. With the adoption of improved nutrients, pesticides, crop, soil and water
management practices, it is possible to reduce the agricultural water pollution. Future
development of sustainable agricultural practices would require documentation of off-
site impacts on water quality. This can be made a part of the basin-wide integrated
water resource planning. The database on quantity of sediment, nutrient and pesticides
in runoff resulting from a basin or watershed needs to be strengthened. Increasing the
number of monitoring stations for effective monitoring of agricultural/industrial water
pollution is the hard pressing need of the present times. Though India has defined
wastewater discharge standards for the domestic and industrial sectors, there are no
discharge standards for the pollution emanating from agriculture. The water pollution
policy needs to provide necessary guidelines for monitoring and control of pollution
resulting from industrial, agricultural and other activities. It may be understood that the
main issues in wastewater irrigation involve the areas of food security, health,
environment, employment and livelihood. Unless the economic significance of
wastewater irrigation is realized in terms of livelihood activity for poverty alleviation,
the donors and the policy makers are unlikely to pay attention to the wastewater
farming.
