Solar

Energy
&

Solar
Panels
 What is Solar Energy?
Solar Energy originates with the thermonuclear fusion
reactions occurring in the sun.
The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly
spread across the visible and near infrared ranges with a
small part in the ultraviolet region.
 How much solar energy?

•About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's

surface.
 Solar Energy as a
SolarResource
Energy is increasingly being used as a resource in the following
areas:
 Architecture and Urban Planning
 Agriculture and Horticulture
 Heating, Cooling and Ventilation
 Cooking
 Fuel Production
 Electricity Generation
Producing Electricity using Solar Energy
Solar Energy can be used to generate electricity in 2
ways:
 Thermal Solar Energy:
Using solar energy for heating fluids
which can be used as a heat source
or to run turbines to generate
electricity.
 Photovoltaic Solar Energy:
Using solar energy for the direct generation
of electricity using photovoltaic
phenomenon.
 Photovoltaic Electricity
Photovoltaic comes from the words photo, meaning light, and
volt, a measurement of electricity.
Photovoltaic Electricity is obtained by
using photovoltaic system.
A basic photovoltaic system consists of four
components: Solar Panel, Battery, Regulator
and the load.
 Solar Panel
 Solar Panel is an indispensable component of this system.
 Solar Panel is responsible to collect solar radiations and
transform
it into electrical energy.
 Solar Panel is an array of several solar cells (Photovoltaic cells).
The arrays can be formed by connecting them
in parallel or series connection depending upon
the energy required.
Solar Panel Manufacturing Technologies
The most common solar technology is crystalline Si. Its two types
are: Mono- Si and Poly- Si.
Mono-Si: Crystal Lattice of entire
Sample is continuous.
Poly-Si: Composed of many crystallites
of varying size and orientation.
Solar Panel Manufacturing Technologies
 Since they are cut from single crystal, they gives the module a uniform
appearance.
Advantages:
 Highest efficient module till now with efficiency
between 13 to 21%.
 Commonly available in the market.
 Greater heat resistance.
 Acquire small area where ever placed.
Disadvantages:
 More expensive to produce.
 High amount of Silicon.
production
Si boule forof
the
 High embodied energy (total energy required to wafers.
produce).
Solar Panel Manufacturing Technologies
Poly-Si Solar Panels:
Polycrystalline (or multicrystalline) modules are composed of a number of different
crystals, fused together to make a single cell.
Poly-Si solar panels have a non-uniform texture due to visible crystal grain present due to
manufacturing process.
Advantages:
 Good efficiency between 14 to 16%.
 Cost effective manufacture.
Commonly Available in the market.

Visible crystal grain in

poly-Si
Solar Panel Manufacturing Technologies
Disadvantages:
 Not as efficient as Mono-Si.
 Large amount of Si.
High Embodied Energy.

Visible difference between Mono-Si and Poly-Si Panels:

Mono-Si solar cells are of dark color and the corners of the Mono-Si
cells are usually missing whereas poly-Si panels are of dark or Panel

light blue color. The difference between the structure is only

due to their manufacturing process.

Poly-Si
Panel
Solar Panel Manufacturing Technologies
Thin Film Solar Panels:
 Made by depositing one or more thin layers (thin film) of photovoltaic material on
a
substrate.
Thin Film technology depend upon the type of material
used to dope the substrate.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium
selenide (CIGS) and amorphous silicon (A-Si) are three
thin-film technologies often used as outdoor
photovoltaic solar power production.
Solar Panel Manufacturing Technologies
Amorphous-Si Panels:
Non-crystalline allotrope of Si with no definite arrangement
of atoms.
Advantages:
 Partially shade tolerant
 More effective in hotter climate
 Uses less silicon - low embodied energy
 No aluminum frame - low embodied energy
Disadvantages:
Less efficient with efficiency between 6 to 12% .
Less popular - harder to replace.
 Takes up more space for same output .
 New technology - less proven reliability.
Comparison of Si on the basis of crystallinity
 Comparison of Mono-Si, Poly-Si and Thin film Panels
Mono-Si Panels Poly-Si Panels Thin Film Panels
1. Most efficient with max. 1. Less efficient with 1. Least efficient with max.
efficiency of 21%. efficiency of 16% (max.) efficiency of 12%.

2. Manufactured from single 2. Manufactured by fusing 2. Manufactured by

Si crystal. different crystals of Si. depositing 1 or more layers of
PV material on substrate.
3. Performance best at 3. Performance best at 3. Performance best at high
standard temperature. moderately high temperatures.
temperature.
4. Requires least area for a 4. Requires less area for a 4. Requires large area for a
given power. given power. given power.
5. Large amount of Si hence, 5. Large amount of Si hence, 4. Low amount of Si used
high embodied energy. high Embodied energy. hence, low embodied energy.
6. Performance degrades in 6. Performance degrades in 5. Performance less affected
low-sunlight conditions. low-sunlight conditions. by low-sunlight conditions.
7. Cost/watt: 1.589 USD 7. 1.418 USD 7. 0.67 USD

8. Largest Manufacturer: 8. Suntech (China) 8. First Solar (USA)

Sunpower (USA)
 What is a Solar Cell?

⚫ A structure that converts solar energy directly to DC electric energy.

 It supplies a voltage and a current to a resistive load
(light, battery, motor).
Power = Current x Voltage=Current2 x R= Voltage2/R
⚫ It behaves like a battery because it supplies DC power.
⚫ It is not a battery because the voltage supplied
by the cell changes with changes in the
resistance of the load.
 Silicon Solar cell
Principle p-n Junction Diode:
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or
excitons.
The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

Ref. Soft Condensed Matter physics group in

univ. of Queenland
Silicon Solar cell Working
 How a panel is created?

Panel wiring diagram connecting cells

 An individual PV cell typically produces 0.6 watts and are

joined in an array to produce the required power.
 Blocking Diodes
When the sun shines, as long as the voltage produced by the panels is greater
than that of the battery, charging will take place.
 However, in the dark, when no voltage is being produced by the panels, the
voltage of the battery would cause a current to flow in the opposite direction
through the panels, which can lead to the discharging of battery. Hence a
blocking diode is used in series with the panels and battery in reverse biasing.
 Normal p-n junction diodes can be used as blocking diodes.
To select a blocking diode, following parameters should
be kept in mind:
The maximum current provided by the
panels. The voltage ratings of the diode.
The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode.
 Hot- Spot and Bypass Diodes
Hot Spot phenomenon happens when one or more cells of the panel is shaded while the others are
illuminated.
 The shaded cells/panels starts behaving as a diode polarized in reverse direction and generates
reverse
power. The other cells generate a current that flows through the
shaded cell and the load.
Any solar cell has its own critical power dissipation Pc
that must not be exceeded and depends on its cooling and
material structures, its area, its maximum operating
temperature and ambient temperature.
A shaded cell may be destroyed when its reverse
dissipation exceeds Pc. This is the hot spot.
 To eliminate the hot-spot phenomenon, a bypass
diode is
parallely connected to the module or group of cells in reverse polarity
which provides another path to the extra current.
 Bypass Diodes working
When part of a PV module is shaded, the shaded cells will not be able to produce as much
current as the unshaded cells. Since all cells are connected in series, the same amount of
current must flow through every cell. The unshaded cells will force the shaded cells to pass
more current through it. The only way the shaded cells can operate at a current higher than
their short circuit current is to operate in a region of negative volt age i.e. to cause a net
voltage loss to the system.
The voltage across the shaded or low current
solar cell becomes greater than the forward bias
voltage of the other series cells which share the
same bypass diode plus the voltage of the
bypass diode thus making the diode to work in
forward bias and hence allowing extra current
to pass
through it, preventing hot-spot.
 Bypass Diodes working
 For an efficient operation, there are two conditions to fulfill:
1. Bypass diode has to conduct when one cell is shadowed.
2. The shadowed cell voltage Vs must stay under its breakdown voltage (Vc).
Ideally, a bypass diode should have a forward voltage (VF) and a leakage current (IR) as low
as possible.
 Two types of diodes are available as bypass diodes in solar panels and arrays:
1. p-n junction silicon diode
2. Schottky barrier diode
 To select a bypass diode, following parameters should be checked:
1. The forward voltage and current ratings of the diode.
2. The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode.
3. The reverse leakage current.
4. Junction Temperature Range
 Solar Panel specifications
 Mechanical Specifications:
1.Solar Cell Type: Defines the type of module or cell used in the module.
e.g.- Mono-Si, Poly-Si or Thin Film.
Design Implication: This determines the class of conversion efficiency of
the module.

2. Cell Dimension (in inches/mm.): Defines the size of cell used in the
module.
e.g.- 125(l) 125 mm(b) (5 inches).
Design Implication: This determines the output power of a single solar
cell.

3.Module Dimension (in inches/mm.): Defines the size of the panel.

e.g.- 1580 (l) 808 (b) 35 (h) mm.
Design Implication: Determines the number of cells accommodated
in the module.
Across length: 1580/125 = 12.64 ~ 12 [least integer].
Across breadth: 808/125 = 6.4 ~ 6.
This means number of cell be 72 (6*12).
 Solar Panel specifications
 Mechanical Specifications:
4. Module Weight (in kgs./lbs.): Defines the weight of the module.
e.g.- 15.5 kgs. (34.1 lbs.)
Design Implication: Determines the maximum number of panels which can be installed.

5.Glazing or front Glass: Defines the type and width of the front glass used.
e.g.- 3.2 mm (0.13 inches) tempered glass.
Design Implication: Width determines the strength of the covering. The type of
glass used
depends upon thermal insulation requirements or strength requirement.

6.Frame: Defines the type of frame used in the module.

e.g.- Anodized aluminium alloy
Design Implication: Frame material is chosen so that it can
Withstand the environmental effects such as corrosion,
hard Impact, etc.
 Solar Panel specifications
 Mechanical Specifications:
7.Output Cables: Defines the type of cables and sometimes their dimensions provided at
output to connect with connector specifications.
e.g.- H+S RADOX® SMART cable 4.0 mm2 of length 1000 mm (39.4 inches) with
RADOX® SOLAR integrated twist locking connectors.
Design Implication: The rating of the cable is as per rating of the PV module and
of optimum length generally required by the customers.

8. Junction Box: Defines the protection level of electrical casing at the back of
panel. Also
includes the no. of bypass diodes (if used).
e.g.- IP67 rated with 3 bypass diodes.
 Solar Panel specifications
 Electrical specifications:
1.Peak Power (W): Defines the maximum power of the panel.
e.g.- P: 195 W
Design Implication:

2.Optimum operating Voltage: Defines the highest operating voltage of panel at the
maximum power at STC.
e.g.- Vmp: 36.6V
Design Implication: Determines the number of panels required in series.

3.Optimum operating current: Defines the highest operating current of panel at the
maximum power at STC.
e.g.- Imp: 5.33A
Design Implication: Determines the wire gauge.
Used to calculate the voltage drops across the modules or cells.
 Solar Panel specifications
 Electrical Specs:
4.Open Circuit Voltage: Defines the output voltage when no load is connected under STC.
e.g.- Voc : 45.4V
Design Implication: Determines the maximum possible voltage.
Determines the maximum number of modules in series.

5. Short Circuit Current: Defines the protection level of

electrical casing at the back of
panel. Also includes the no. of bypass diodes (if used).
e.g.- Isc: 5.69A
Design Implication: Determines the current rating of fuse which is to be used for
protection.
Determines the conductor size.

General I-V curve

 Solar Panel specifications
 Electrical Specifications:
6. I-V Characteristics: Defines the current and voltage variation for the panel. Also
shows I-V characteristics for different irradiance.
e.g.-

Variation in I-V characteristics with Irradiance

Design Implication: This parameter determines the module current and voltage for
a particular value of irradiance.
This can be used to obtain the output voltage at the lowest irradiance for a region.
 Solar Panel specifications
 Electrical Specifications:
7.Module Efficiency: Defines the conversion efficiency given by a given module (which is
generally lesser than the single solar cell used in the module).
e.g.- 15.3%
Design Implication: This parameter helps in solving the problem of choosing a module.

8.Operating Temperature: Defines the range of temperature for which the module can
function.
e.g.- -40 C to 85 C
Design Implication: Determines the temperature range for the environment in which
the panel can be kept.

9.Max. Series Fuse Rating: Defines the max. current which can be handled by the module
without damage.
e.g.- 15 A
Design Implication: This defines the rating of fuse to be used with the module.
 Solar Panel specifications
 Electrical Specifications:
10. Power Tolerance: Defines the range of power deviation from its stated power ratings
due to change in its operating condition. It is defined in %.
e.g.- 0/+5 %
Design Implication: This parameter determines the upper limit for power of a module.

11. Parameters defined under NOCT: These parameters are same as defined under STC
conditions with different values.

Difference between STC and NOCT:

STC (Standard Test Conditions):
Irradiance 1000 W/m2, Module temperature 25 C, Air Mass=1.5

NOCT(Nominal Operating Cell Temperature):

Irradiance 800 W/m2, Ambient temperature 20 C, Wind speed 1 m/s
 Solar Panel specifications
 Electrical Specifications:
12. Temperature Coefficients: These coefficients are defined to show the possible rate of
change of values under varying module temperature and irradiance.
Design Implication: These parameters can be
used to calculate the power, current and
voltage of the module.
Temperature Coefficient of Voc can also be
used to determine the maximum panel
voltage at the lowest expected temperature.

 Packing Configuration:

Pieces per pallet: Number of modules per

box.
Pallet per container: Number of boxes per
container.
Pieces per container: Number of modules
per container.
e.g.- Pieces per pallet (26) X Pallets per
container (12)= Pieces per container (312)
1/25/20 Submittd by: Gourav
 Comparison between Suntech, Trina and Sanyo 190W Monocrystalline
modules
Parameters at STC Sanyo (HIP-190DA3) Suntech (STP190S-24/Ad+) Trina (TSM-190DC01A)

Optimum Operating Voltage (Vmp) 55.3 V 36.5 V 36.8 V

Optimum Operating Current (Imp) 3.44 A 5.20 A 5.18 A

Open - Circuit Voltage (Voc) 68.1 V 45.2 V 45.1 V

Short - Circuit Current (Isc) 3.7 A 5.62 A 5.52 A

Maximum Power at STC (Pmax) 190 W 190 W 190 W

Module Efficiency 15.7% 14.9% 14.9%

Maximum Series Fuse Rating 15 A 15 A 10 A

Maximum System Voltage 600 VDC 1000 V DC 1000VDC

Power Tolerance +10/-0% 0/+5 % 0/+3

Temperature Coefficient of Pmax -0.34% / C -0.48 %/ C - 0.45%/ C

Temperature Coefficient of Voc -0.191 V / C -0.34 %/ C - 0.35%/ C

Temperature Coefficient of Isc 1.68 mA / C 0.037 %/ C 0.05%/ C

Module Dimension 53.2 x 35.35 x 2.36 in. 62.2 31.8 1.4 inches 62.24 x 31.85 x 1.57in.
(1351 x 898 x 60 mm) (1580 808 35mm) (1581 x 809 x 40mm)
Warranty : 90% power output 20 Years 12 years 10 years
80% power output 20 Years 25 years 25 years

Cost: $570.00 $285.00 $459.00

1/25/2013 ubmitted by: Gourav a
S Kum r
 Comparison between Mono-, Poly- and Amorphous Si Solar Panels (5
W) at STC
Parameters Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Thin Film (a-si)
(S.C. Origin) (Moserbaer) (China Solar)

Optimum Operating Voltage (Vmp) 17.82V 17 V 18 V

Optimum Operating Current (Imp) 0.285A 0.29A 0.278 A

Open - Circuit Voltage (Voc) 21.396V 21V 26.7 V
Short - Circuit Current (Isc) 0.315A 0.35A 0.401 A
Maximum Power at STC (Pmax) 5W 5W 5W
Module Efficiency 16.2% 14% Not Available
Temperature Coefficient of Pmax -0.549% ( K) -0.43 ( K) -(0.19 0.03)%/ C

Temperature Coefficient of Voc -0.397% / K -0.344 %/ K -(0.34 0.04)%/ C

Temperature Coefficient of Isc 0.06% / K 0.11 %/ K 0.08 0.02)%/ C

Maximum System Voltage 1000 VDC 600VDC 600 VDC

Module Dimension 350x176x34mm 359x197x26 mm 385 x322 x18 mm

Warranty: 90% power output 10 years 10 years 10 years

85% power output 25 years 15 years 15 years
 How to choose a solar panel?
Critical parameters to be considered for solar panel evaluation:

1. Selecting the right technology : The selection of solar panel technology

generally
depends on space available for installation and the overall cost of the system.
3. Selecting the right manufacturer for better warranty.
4. Check operating specifications beyond STC ratings
5. Negative Tolerance can lead to a lower system
performance and reduced capacity
6.Solar Panel efficiency under different conditions
and over time.
 How to design a PV Off-grid system?
1. Collect some data viz. Latitude of the location, and solar irradiance (one for
every month).
2. Calculation of total solar energy.
3. Estimate the required electrical energy on a monthly/weekly basis (in kwh):
Required Energy= Equipment Wattage X Usage Time.
4. Calculate the system size using the data from ‘worst month’ which can be as
follows:
a) The current requirement will decide the number of panels required.
b) The days of autonomy decides the storage capacity of the system i.e. the number
of
batteries required.