Quality assurance & Lab
Management
MLTQA-1302/1
CREDIT HOURS 3 (3-0)
SUMAIRA KOUSAR
Lecturer
UIMLT
Topic: inferential statistics
Learning objectives:
• To know the concept of
Standard deviation
• Coefficient of variation
• Measures of variability
Descriptive Statistics
Statistics used to describe and
interpret
sample data.
Results are not really meant to
apply to other
samples or to the larger
population
Frequency Distribution
Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)
Percentile Values
Inferential Statistics
Statistics used to make
inference about the population
from which the sample was
drawn.
Correlation
T-test
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
Regression
Population vs. Sample
Population: A large group of people
to which we are interested in
generalizing.
‘parameter’
Sample: A smaller group drawn from
a population.
‘statistic’
Measures of Central Tendency
Statistics that identify where
the center or middle of the set of
scores are.
Mode : Most frequently occurring
scores.
Median : the 50th percentile, the
second quartile
Mean : Arithmetic means, average,
Add all the scores and divide by the
number of scores.
Which central tendency to use?
Depends on :
• The level of measurement of the
data.
2. The shape of the score distribution.
(Skewness)
Level of Measurement
Nominal: Categorical scale
e.g. Male/Female, Blue eye/Brown eye/Green eye
Ordinal: Ranking scale
(Differences between the ranks need not be equal)
e.g. Scored highest (100 pts), middle (85 pts), lowest
(20 pts)
Interval: The distance between any two
adjacent units of measurement (intervals) is
the same but there is no meaningful zero
point.
e.g. Fahrenheit temperature
Ratio: The distance between any two adjacent
units of measurement is the same and there is
a true zero point.
Which central tendency to use?
1. The level of measurement of the
data.
Mode---Nominal, Ordinal, Interval or
Ratio
Median--- Ordinal, Interval, or Ratio
Mean---Interval or Ratio
Shape of Distribution: Kurtosis
How flat or peaked a distribution appears.
(Does not affect the central tendency)
Leptokurtic Mesokurtic Platykurtic
(Normal Distribution)
Shape of the distribution:
unimodal, bimodal
Bimodal --- 2 Modes
Mode is not a good indicator of the
central tendency.
Which central tendency to use?
Symmetric, unimodal, Normal
distribution ---Mode, Median, Mean all
the same.
Skewed --- use the Median.
Bimodal --- do not use the Mode.
Describing data using Tables
and Charts
Frequency table
Stem and leaf
Polygon
Histogram
Box and whisker
Measures of Variability
Reflects how scores differ from one
another.
- spread
- dispersion
Example:
7, 6, 3, 3, 1
3, 4, 4, 5, 4,
4, 4, 4, 4, 4,
Measures of Variability
Range
Highest score – lowest score
Example:
7, 6, 3, 3, 1 ---- range = 6
3, 4, 4, 5, 4 ---- range = 2
4, 4, 4, 4, 4 ---- range = 0
Variance
Standard Deviation
Measures of Variability
Range
Standard Deviation
Variance
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation: A measure of the
spread of the scores around the mean.
Average distance from the mean.
Example:Can you calculate the average
distance of each score from the mean?
(X=4)
7, 6, 3, 3, 1 (distance from the mean:
3,2,-1,-1,-3)
3, 4, 4, 5, 4, (distance from the mean: -
1,0,0,1,0)
You can’t calculate the mean because
Formula for Standard Deviation
Sigma: sum of what follows
Each individual score
s = (X-X)2 Mean of all the scores
n-1
Sample size
Standard deviation
of the sample
Why n-1?
s (lower case sigma) is an estimate of the
population standard deviation
( :sigma) .
In order to calculate an unbiased
estimate of the population standard
deviation, subtract one from the
denominator.
Sample standard deviation tends to be
an underestimation of the population
standard deviation.
Variance
Variance: Standard deviation
squared.
S = (X-X)2
n-1
Not likely to see the variance
mentioned by itself in a report.
Difficult to interpret.
But it is important since it is used
in many statistical formulas and
techniques.
12.4 – Standard Deviation
Measures of Variation
The range of a set of data is the
difference between the greatest and
least values.
The interquartile range is the
difference between the third and
first quartiles
Measures of Variation
The range of a set of data is the
difference between the greatest and
least values.
The interquartile range is the
difference between the third and
first quartiles
Example
There are 9 members of the Community Youth Leadership Board.
Find the range and interquartile range of their ages: 22, 16, 24, 17,
16, 25, 20, 19, 26.
greatest value – least value = 26 – 16 Find the range.
= 10
median Find the median.
16 16 17 19 20 22 24 25 26
(16 + 17) (24 + 25)
Q1 = 2 = 16.5 Q3 = 2
= 24.5 Find Q1 and Q3.
Q3 – Q1 = 24.5 – 16.5 Find the interquartile range.
=8
The range is 10 years. The interquartile range is 8 years.
More Measures of Variation
Standard deviation is a measure
of how each value in a data set
varies or deviates from the mean
Steps to Finding Standard Deviation
1. Find the mean of the set of data: x
2. Find the difference between each
value and the mean: x x
3. Square the difference: ( x x ) 2
4. Find the average (mean) of these
squares: ( x x ) 2
n
5. Take the square root to find the
standard deviation ( x x)2
n
Standard Deviation
Find the mean and the standard deviation for the values 78.2, 90.5,
98.1, 93.7, 94.5.
x = (78.2 + 90.5 + 98.1 +93.7 +94.5) = 91 Find the mean.
5
x x x–x (x – x)2 Organize the next
steps in a table.
78.2 91 –12.8 163.84
90.5 91 –0.5 .25
98.1 91 7.1 50.41
93.7 91 2.7 7.29 (x – x)2
= Find the standard
94.5 91 3.5 12.25 n
deviation.
= 234.04 6.8
5
The mean is 91, and the standard deviation is about 6.8.
Let’s Try One – No Calculator!
Find the mean and the standard deviation for the values 9, 4, 5, 6
x Find the mean.
x x x–x (x – x)2 Organize the next
steps in a table.
(x – x)2
= Find the standard
n
deviation.
Let’s Try One – No Calculator
Find the mean and the standard deviation for the values 9, 4, 5, 6
(9+4+5+6)
x= = 6 Find the mean.
4
x x x–x (x – x)2 Organize the next
steps in a table.
9 6 3 9
4 6 -2 4
5 6 -1 1
6 6 0 0 (x – x)2
= Find the standard
sum 14 n
deviation.
14 4 56 14
1.87
44 4 2
The mean is 6, and the standard deviation is about 1.87.
More Measures of Variation
Z-Score: The Z-Score is the number
of standard deviations that a value
is from the mean.
Z-Score
A set of values has a mean of 22 and a standard deviation of 3. Find the
z-score for a value of 24.
value – mean
z-score = standard deviation
24 – 22
= 3
Substitute.
2
= Simplify.
3
= 0.6
Z-Score
A set of values has a mean of 34 and a standard deviation of 4. Find the
z-score for a value of 26.
value – mean
z-score = standard deviation
26 – 34
= 4
Substitute.
-8
= Simplify.
4
= -2
Standard Deviation
Use the data to find the mean and standard deviation for daily
energy demands on the weekends only.
S M T W Th F S Step 1: Use the STAT feature
53 52 47 47 50 39 to enter the data as L1.
33 40 41 44 47 49 43
39 47 49 54 53 46 36 Step 2: Use the CALC menu of
33 45 45 42 43 39 33 STAT to access the
33 40 40 41 42 1-Var Stats option.
The mean is about 36.1 MWh; The mean is x.
the standard deviation
The standard
is about 3.6 MWh.
deviation is x.
Learning outcomes:
• To know the concept of
Standard deviation
• Coefficient of variation
• Measures of variability
References:
ISO 9000:2005, Clause 3.2.10
Praxiom Research Group Limited (16 August 2017). "ISO 9001
Translated Into Plain English". Praxiom Research Group Limited.
Retrieved 29 November 2017.
Aft, L.S. (1997). "Chapter 1: Introduction". Fundamentals of
Industrial Quality Control. CRC Press. pp. 1–17.
Dennis Adsit (9 November 2007). "What the Call Center Industry
Can Learn from Manufacturing: Part I" (PDF). National Association
of Call Centers. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
Dennis Adsit (23 November 2007). "What the Call Center
Industry Can Learn from Manufacturing: Part II" (PDF). National
Association of Call Centers. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
Shewhart, Walter A. (Walter Andrew); Deming, W. Edwards
(William Edwards) (1939). Statistical method from the viewpoint
of quality control. Washington: The Graduate School, The
Department of Agriculture. pp. 1–5.
Thank You
