BLOOD
Blood vascular system :In human beings it consists of blood, heart
and blood vessels. It is responsible for various functions like transport,
homeostasis and protection.
Blood Composition and Coagulation :
Study of blood is called haematology. An average adult has about 4 to
6 liters of blood
Red coloured fluid connective tissue derived from embryonic
mesoderm
Slightly alkaline (pH 7.4), salty and viscous fluid.
It has two main components- the fluid plasma (55%) and the
formed elements i.e. Blood cells (44%)
Plasma
Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of
the blood.
90-92 per cent of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 per cent
of it.
Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are the major proteins.
Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood. Globulins
primarly are involved in defense mechanisms of the body and the albumins
help in osmotic balance. Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals
like Na+ , Ca++, Mg++, HCO3–, Cl–, etc. Glucose, amino acids, lipids,
etc.,
Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.
Formed Elements
Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called formed
elements and they constitute nearly 45 per cent of the blood.
Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of all the cells in
blood.
A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 millions to 5.5 millions of RBCs mm–3
of blood.
RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most of the mammals and are biconcave in
shape
They have a red coloured, iron containing complex protein called haemoglobin,
hence the colour and name of these cells.
A healthy individual has 12-16 gms of haemoglobin in every
100 ml of blood.
RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in
the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
Most abundant cells in the human body
Circular, biconcave and enucleated (in camel and llama they are
nucleated).
Process of formation of RBCs is called erythropoiesis.
Erythropoeitic organ of the foetus is the liver and spleen and in the
adult,
Condition with increase in the number of RBCs is called
polycythemia
and with decrease in number of RBCs is called as
erythrocytopenia. The hormone
erythropoietin produced by the kideny cells stimulates the
bone marrow for production of RBCs.
The hematocrit is ratio of the volume of RBCs
to total blood volume of blood.
Condition with less number of RBCs or less amount of
haemoglobin or both is called as anaemia
Each molecule of haemoglobin is a protein-iron complex. It consists of four
polypeptide (globin) chains 2 alpha and 2 beta chains. An iron – porphyrin
(haem) group is attached to each chain and all
four chains are bound together. Each haem Group can carry one O2
molecule and thus one haemoglobin molecule can carry four
O2 forming oxyhaemoglobin. CO2 interacts with amino acid residues of
globin chains and forms carbaminohaemoglobin. After haemolysis,
haemoglobin is broken down. Its globin part is broken to recycle the amino
acids. Iron of heme group is stored as ferritin in the liver and porphyrin
group of heme is converted into green pigment biliverdin and then into red-
orange coloured bilirubin. These pigments (mainly bilirubin) are added to
bile and finally removed out of body along with faeces.
Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are
colourless due to the lack of haemoglobin. They are nucleated and are
relatively lesser in number which averages 6000-8000 mm–3 of blood.
Leucocytes are generally short lived.
Two main categories of WBCs – granulocytes and agranulocytes.
Leucocytes are colourless, nucleated and amoeboid cells larger than
RBCs.Due to their
amoeboid movement they can move out of the capillary walls by a process
called diapedesis.
• Decrease in number of WBC is called leucopenia (common in HIV, AIDS
and TB patients or those exposed to radiations, shock, etc)
• Temporary increase in number of WBCs is called as leucocytosis.
• Uncontrolled increase in number of WBCs is a type of blood cancer
called leukemia
• These are colourless, irregular nucleated cells and show polymorphism
(exist in variable forms)
Granulocytes :
These are WBCs with a granular cytoplasm, also called Polymorpho
nuclear leucocyte (PMN) cells.
They have lobulated nuclei in different shapes.
They have lobulated nuclei in different shapes.
Granulocytes are formed from myeloid stem cells and once
formed, do not divide. Granulocytes constitute about 72% of total
WBCs.
Granulocytes constitute about 72% of total WBCs.
Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are different types of
granulocytes,
Neutrophils are the most abundant cells (60-65 per cent) of the
total WBCs and
basophils are the least (0.5-1 per cent)
among them.stained with neutral stains (dyes).
Neutrophils and monocytes (6-8 per cent) are phagocytic cells
which destroy foreign organisms entering the body.
‘Pus’ is mixture of dead neutrophils, damaged tissues and dead
microbes.
Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin, etc., and are
involved in inflammatory reactions. These cells have very few
granules of large size, and stain with basic stains like methylene
blue. Basophils are non-phagocytic, small, spherical cells and
are about 0.5-1% of total WBCs.Nucleus is twisted
Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist infections and are also associated
with allergic reactions.Nucleus is bilobed. Destroy antigen-
antibody complex by phagocytosis
Agranulocytes are about 28% of total WBCs. Cytoplasm of these
leucocytes is without granules. They are formed from lymphoid
stem cells and can divide by mitosis.Nuclei of agranulocytes are
large in size but are not lobulated like the granulocytes.
There are two types of agranulocytes – Lymphocytes and
Monocytes.
Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent) are of two major types – ‘B’ and ‘T’
forms. Both B and T lymphocytes are responsible for immune
responses of the body.
They constitute about 25-30% of total WBCs.
Depending upon function, two types of lymphocytes are
present as B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
B-lymphocytes mature in bone marrow and are responsible
for antibody production /humoral immunity. It is a highly
specific antigen, antibody immunity.
T-lymphocytes mature in thymus and are responsible for
cell-mediated immunity. Helper T-cells, killer T-cell, memory
T-cells and suppressor T-cells are four main subtypes of T-
lymphocytes.
Monocytes : Monocytes are the largest of all the
WBCs. . Its nucleus is large and bean or kidney
shaped.
They form 3-5% of WBCs.
Monocytes are actively motile and give rise to
macrophages. They are mainly phagocytic and
destroy the bacteria and dead or damaged tissue
by phagocytosis.
Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments
produced from
megakaryocytes (special cells in the bone marrow).
Blood normallycontains 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets
mm–3. Platelets can release a variety of substances
most of which are involved in the coagulation or
clotting of blood.
Number of thrombocytes decreases than normal,
condition is called as thrombocytopenia.
Increase in platelets is called thrombocytosis.
Blood Groups
ABO grouping
Based on the presence or absence of two surface
antigens (chemicals that can induce immune response)
on the RBCs namely A and B. Similarly, the plasma of
different individuals contain two natural antibodies
(proteins produced in response to antigens).
The distribution of antigens and antibodies in the
four groups of blood, A, B, AB and O.
Rh grouping
Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one
present in Rhesus monkeys(hence Rh), is also
observed on the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly
80 per cent) of humans. Such individuals are called
Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen
is absent are called Rh negative (Rh-ve).
An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will
form specific antibodies against the Rh antigens.
erythroblastosis foetalis
LYMPH (TISSUE FLUID)
As the blood passes through the capillaries in tissues, some water along with many
small water soluble substances move out into the spaces between the cells of tissues
leaving the larger proteins and most of the formed elements in the blood vessels.
This fluid released out is called the interstitial fluid or tissue fluid. It has the same
mineral distribution as that in plasma.
a. Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc., between the blood and the cells always occur
through this fluid.
An elaborate network of vessels called the lymphatic system collects this fluid and
drains it back to the major veins.
. The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called the lymph.
Lymph is a colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes
which are responsible for the immune responses of the body.
Lymph is also an important carrier for nutrients, hormones,
etc. Fats are absorbed through
lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.
Human Heart
Human circulatory system, also called the blood vascular
system consists of a muscular chambered heart, a
network of closed branching blood vessels and blood, the
fluid which is circulated.
Mesodermally derived organ, is situated in the thoracic
cavity, in between the two lungs, slightly tilted to the left.
It has the size of a clenched fist.
Average weight is about 300gm in males and 250gm in females
IT is conical in shape and lies in mediastenum- i.e. The space
between two lungs.
Broader at upper end (base) and conical at lower end (apex).
Conical end is slightly tilted to left side and rests above the
diaphragm.
Heart is enclosed in a membranous sac called pericardium.
Pericardium is formed of two main layers – outer fibrous and
inner serous pericardium.
Serous pericardium is soft, moist and elastic. It is formed of
squamous epithelium and is further divisible into two layers
Parietal and visceral layer
Parietal and visceral layers of serous pericardium are separated by
a pericardial space.
Space is filled with pericardial fluid (about 50ml) which acts as a
shock absorber and protects the heart from mechanical injuries.
It also keeps the heart moist and acts as lubricant.
Pumping action of heart :
The heart acts as the main pumping organ of the circulatory
system.
The pumping action is brought about by a rhythmic contraction
and relaxation of the cardiac muscles or heart muscles.
Contraction of heart muscles is systole and relaxation of heart
muscles is diastole.
A single systole followed by diastole makes one heart beat.
Heart beats 70 to 72 times per minute.
During each heart beat ventricles pump about 70 ml of blood this is called stroke
volume.
It means heart pumps about 72 (heart rate) x 70 ml (stroke volume) = 5040 ml ≈ 5
liters of blood per minute this is called cardiac output.
