 Module Title: Advanced

Structured Query Language

Module code: EIS WDDBA4 M03
1123
Nominal duration: 100 Hours
Advanced SQL statement
SQL statements with functions
SQL statements with
aggregation and filtering
 DBMS fundamentals
 Information-based database tools and equipment
 Functions of where clause
 Functions of order by clause
 Boolean operators
 Elimination of duplicated and null values
 Functions of join operator
 Functions of union operator
 Data control language
 Transaction control language
 Unit One: Advanced SQL statements
DBMS fundamentals
A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that allows users
to define, create, maintain, and control access to databases. It provides
a systematic and organized way to store, retrieve, and manage data
efficiently.
1. What is a Database?
A database is a structured collection of data stored in a computer system
that can be easily accessed, managed, and updated.
2. Functions of DBMS
 Data Storage Management: Efficiently stores data.
 Data Retrieval: Allows queries and reports.
 Data Manipulation: Supports insert, update, delete.
 Security Management: Controls user access and permissions.
 Backup & Recovery: Maintains data integrity after failures.
 Concurrency Control: Manages access when multiple users interact.
 1.2. Database tools and equipment

Database tools and equipment refer to the

software, utilities, and hardware used to
design, manage, access, and maintain databases
effectively.
 A. Software Tools (Database Tools)
Tool Category Description Examples
Core software for MySQL, PostgreSQL,
DBMS Software
managing databases Oracle, SQL Server
Interfaces for writing and DBeaver, pgAdmin, SQL
Database IDEs
executing SQL Developer, HeidiSQL
Used for designing Entity- dbdiagram.io, Lucidchart,
ER Diagram Tools
Relationship diagrams Draw.io
Automate database Percona XtraBackup,
Backup Tools
backups and recovery pgBackRest
Monitor performance, SolarWinds, Zabbix, New
Monitoring Tools
health, and usage Relic
Help in moving data
AWS DMS, Flyway,
Migration Tools between different
DataGrip
databases
Design and visualize data ER/Studio, Oracle Data
Data Modeling Tools
structures Modeler
 Con..
Database tools and equipment are essential for:
 Designing databases
 Writing and executing queries
 Managing data access and security
 Monitoring and maintaining performance
 Ensuring data reliability and backup
 1.3.Functions of where clause

Definition:-The WHERE clause is used in SQL

to filter records and return only those rows that
meet a specified condition.
It applies to:-
• SELECT
• UPDATE
• DELETE
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_ name
WHERE condition;
 Con..

 How do you retrieve all columns?

 SELECT * FROM employees;

 How do you retrieve a single column?

 SELECT name FROM employees;

 How do you retrieve some columns?

 SELECT name, department, salary FROM employees;
 Con..

Task SQL Statement Example

Retrieve all columns SELECT * FROM table_name;

SELECT column_name FROM

Retrieve one column
table_name;

SELECT column1, column2

Retrieve selected columns
FROM table_name;
 

Operator
Comparison operators in the
Description
WHERE clause
Example
= Equal to WHERE salary = 50000
!= or <> Not equal to WHERE department <> 'HR'
> Greater than WHERE age > 30
< Less than WHERE salary < 40000
>= Greater than or equal to WHERE experience >= 5

<= Less than or equal to WHERE joining_year <= 2020

WHERE salary BETWEEN 30000 AND

BETWEEN Within a range (inclusive)
50000

IN Matches any value in a list WHERE department IN ('HR', 'IT')

Does not match any value in a

NOT IN WHERE department NOT IN ('HR')
list
Pattern matching (wildcards:
LIKE WHERE name LIKE 'A%'
%, _)

IS NULL Checks for NULL values WHERE manager_id IS NULL

IS NOT NULL Checks for NOT NULL values WHERE manager_id IS NOT NULL
 Con..

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department =

'Finance';
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary > 60000;
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE age
BETWEEN 25 AND 35;
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE role IN
('Manager', 'Analyst');
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE name LIKE 'S
%';
he WHERE clause + comparison operators =
powerful filtering tool in SQL.
 CREATE INDEX Statement

What is an Index?
An index in SQL is a performance optimization tool
used to speed up the retrieval of rows from a table by
providing quick access to the data.
Think of it like the index of a book — it helps locate
information faster without scanning every page.
Basic syntax:-
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
Example 1: Single Column Index
CREATE INDEX idx_lastname
ON employees (last_name);
 Con..
Example 2: Multi-Column (Composite) Index
CREATE INDEX idx_name_dept
ON employees (last_name, department);
Useful when queries filter using both last_name and
department.
When to Use Indexes:
 Primary and foreign key columns
 Columns used in WHERE, JOIN, ORDER BY
Avoid on:
 Small tables
 Columns with many duplicate values
 Columns rarely used in filtering or sorting
DROP INDEX idx_lastname;
 Con..
Feature Benefit

CREATE INDEX Speeds up data retrieval

UNIQUE INDEX Enforces uniqueness

Composite Index Optimizes queries using multiple columns

DROP INDEX Removes an existing index

 1.4. Functions of order by clause

What is the ORDER BY Clause?

The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the result set of a query
in ascending or descending order based on one or more
columns.

Function Description
Arranges the output rows in a specific
1. Sorting Results
order.
Makes reports and outputs easier to
2. Improves Data Readability
analyze.
Useful when sorting based on primary and
3. Can Sort by Multiple Columns
secondary fields.
4. Works with Numeric, Text, and Date
Supports sorting on all data types.
Columns
5. Default is Ascending (ASC) Ascending order if not explicitly stated.
 Con..

Syntax:-
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1 [ASC|DESC], column2
[ASC|DESC];
Sort by One Column (Ascending - Default):
SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY name;
Sort by One Column (Descending):
SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY salary DESC;
 Con..
Sort by Multiple Columns:
SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY
department ASC, salary DESC;
generally
Keyword Function

ORDER BY Sorts query results

ASC Sort in ascending order (default)

DESC Sort in descending order

 Con..

ORDER BY is used with the SQL SELECT

statement and is usually specified after the
WHERE, HAVING, and GROUP BY clauses.
 1.5.Boolean operators
Operator Description

ALL TRUE if all of the sub query values meet the condition

AND TRUE if all the condition separated by AND is true

ANY TRUE if any of the sub query values meet the condition

BETWEEN TRUE if the operand is within the range of comparisons

EXISTS TRUE if the sub query returns one or more records

IN TRUE if the operand is equal to one of a list of expressions

LIKE TRUE if the operand matches a pattern

NOT Displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE

OR TRUE if any of the conditions separated by OR is true

 Con..

Example: Assume we have created a table named

CUSTOMERS in SQL database using CREATE
TABLE statement and inserted some values. The
table created is as shown below.
EmployeeID Name Age Department Salary City

1 Alice 30 HR 50000 New York

2 Bob 24 IT 60000 Chicago

3 Charlie 29 IT 55000 New York

4 Diana 35 Finance 65000 Seattle

5 Eve 28 HR 48000 Chicago

 Con..
SQL ALL Operator

The ALL operator:

 Returns a Boolean value as a result

 Returns TRUE if ALL of the sub query values meet the condition

 It is used with SELECT, WHERE and HAVING statements

 Example:- SELECT Name FROM Employees

WHERE Salary > ALL (SELECT Salary FROM Employees WHERE

Department = 'HR');

Returns employees whose salary is higher than all HR employees.

 Con..

ALL means that the condition will be true only if

the operation is true for all values in the range.
ALL operator syntax
 SELECT ALL column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
 WHERE clause with AND, OR operators

We can use AND ,OR operators together in SQL to combine

multiple conditions in a WHERE clause to filter rows that meets
the specified criteria. The AND operator will make sure only
those rows are filtered that satisfy all the conditions and the OR
operator will filter records that satisfy any one of the specified
conditions. However, this is only used when specifying one
condition is not enough to filter all the required rows.
Following is the syntax for using the AND and OR operators in a WHERE
clause

WHERE (condition1 OR condition2) AND condition3;

 Con..
ID Name Age Address Salary

1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 2000

2 Kebede 25 Arada 1500

3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000

4 Fulea 25 Kality 6500

5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500

6 Momona 22 Lafto 4500

7 Tibletse 24 Bole 10000

 Con..
Example: by using the previous customers table, we are
retrieving all rows from the CUSTOMERS table based
on some conditions. The parentheses control the order of
evaluation so that the OR operator is applied first,
followed by the AND operator.
 Select * from customers where (age = 25 OR salary <
4500) AND (name = 'Chemdesa' OR name =
'Momona');
 Con..
SQL ALL Operator

The ALL operator:

 Returns a Boolean value as a result

 Returns TRUE if ALL of the sub query values

meet the condition
 It is used
with SELECT, WHERE and HAVING statements
 Con..

ALL means that the condition will be true only if

the operation is true for all values in the range.
ALL operator syntax
 SELECT ALL column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
 Con..

WHERE clause with AND, OR operators

We can use AND ,OR operators together in SQL to
combine multiple conditions in a WHERE clause to
filter rows that meets the specified criteria.
The AND operator will make sure only those rows
are filtered that satisfy all the conditions and the
OR operator will filter records that satisfy any one
of the specified conditions. However, this is only
used when specifying one condition is not enough
to filter all the required rows.
 Con..

The syntax for using the AND and OR operators in a

WHERE clause
WHERE (condition1 OR condition2) AND
condition3;
Example: by using the previous customers table, we
are retrieving all rows from the CUSTOMERS table
based on some conditions. The parentheses control
the order of evaluation so that the OR operator is
applied first, followed by the AND operator.
Select * from customers where (age = 25 OR salary <
4500) AND (name = 'Chemdesa' OR name =
'Momona');
 Con..

ID Name Age Address Salary

3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000

 SQL ANY Operator

The ANY operator:

 Returns a Boolean value as a result
 Returns TRUE if ANY of the sub query values meet the
condition
ANY means that the condition will be true if the operation is
true for any of the values in the range.
ANY operator syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ANY
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);
 Con..
Note: The operator must be a standard
comparison operator (=, <>, !=, >, >=, <, or <=).
Example: in the following example if we want to
retrieve name of the customers whose salary is
2000, we can write this query.
SELECT Name
FROM customers
WHERE ID = ANY
(SELECT ID
FROM customers
WHERE salary=2000;
 Con..

Name
Tilahun
Chemdesa
 Con..

SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is a logical operator in SQL, that is
used to retrieve the data within a specified range.

The retrieved values can be integers, characters, or dates. You

can use the BETWEEN operator to replace a combination of
"greater than equal AND less than equal" conditions.
 SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
 Con..
Example: by using the previous customers table,
we can write a query that will display all
customers whose age is between 20 and 30.
Select * from customers where age between 20
and 30; ID Name Age
Address Salary

2 Kebede 25 Arada 1500

3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000

4 Fulea 25 Kality 6500

5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500

6 Momona 22 Lafto 4500

7 Tibletse 24 Bole 10000

 Con..
Example: by using the previous customers table,
we can write a query that will display all
customers whose name starts between the a and g.
NOT BETWEEN Operator
The NOT BETWEEN operator in SQL works in
exactly opposite to the BETWEEN operator. This
is used to retrieve the data which is not present in
the specified range.
Example: Select * from customers where age not
between 20 and 30;
 Con..

ID Name Address Salary

Age

1 Tilahun Gulele 2000

32
 SQL EXISTS Operator
The EXISTS operator is used to test for the
existence of any record in a sub query. It returns
TRUE if the sub query returns one or more records.
EXISTS operator Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHE
RE condition);
 WHERE clause with IN operator

Using the IN operator you can specify the list of

values or sub query in the where clause. If you use
WHERE and IN with the SELECT statement, it
allows us to retrieve the rows in a table that match
any of the values in the specified list.
Example: by using the previous customers table,
suppose you want to display records with NAME
values Tilahun, Chemdesa, momona from the
CUSTOMERS table, you can use the following query
Select * from customers where name in (‘Tilahun',
'Chemdesa', 'momona');
 Con..

ID Name Age Address Salary

1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 3000

3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000

6 Momona 22 Lafto 4500

 SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to

search for a specified pattern in a column.
There are two wildcards often used in conjunction
with the LIKE operator:
The percent sign % represents zero, one, or multiple
characters
The underscore sign _ represents one, single character
LIKE operator syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;
 Con..
Example: by using the previous customers table,
we can write a query which would display all the
records where the name starts with K and is at least
3 characters in length
Select * from customers where name LIKE 'K__%';

I Name Age Address Salary

D
2 Kebede 25 Arada 1500
5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500
 SQL NOT Operator

The NOT operator is used in combination with

other operators to give the opposite result, also
called the negative result.
NOT operator syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;
 1.6 .Elimination of duplicated and null values

Duplicated values
Duplicates can be a big problem in SQL
databases as they can slow down query
performance and waste valuable storage space.
When the result set from a SELECT statement
contains duplicate rows, you may want to
remove them and keep every row data to be
unique for a column or combination of columns.
You can use the DISTINCT identifier to
eliminate duplicate records from the result set.
 Con..
Consider the following facts when using
DISTINCT identifier in a SELECT statement:
In a SELECT statement, include DISTINCT
keyword after the SELECT clause.
Multiple columns can be specified after DISTINCT
keyword. In this case, the result set contains distinct
combination of data from these columns.
DISTINCT keyword syntax
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
 Null Value

A null value indicates no value. It means that the

column value is absent in a row. A null value is not
the same as a blank space or a zero value. A zero
value is an integer and a blank space is a character
while a null value is the one that has been left
blank.
To exclude the null values from a table we need to
use IS NOT NULL operator with the WHERE
clause. IS NOT NULL Operator is used to test for
non-empty values.
 CON..

IS NOT NULL operator syntax:

SELECT column_names
FROM table_name WHERE column_name IS
NOT NULL;
 1.7. Functions of join operator

A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two

or more tables, based on a related column between
them.
The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that
have matching values in both tables. It is the most
common type of join. Inner joins combine records
from two tables whenever there are matching
values in a field common to both tables.
 CON..
Inner Join clause in SQL Server creates a new table
(not physical) by combining rows that have
matching values in two or more tables. This join is
based on a logical relationship (or a common field)
between the tables and is used to retrieve data that
appears in both tables.
INNER JOIN operator syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
 SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from

the left table (table1), and the matching records from
the right table (table2). The result is 0 records from
the right side, if there is no match.
LEFT JOIN keyword syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Note: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT
OUTER JOIN.
CON..
 SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from
the right table (table2), and the matching records
from the left table (table1). The result is 0 records
from the left side, if there is no match.
RIGHT JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Note: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is
called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
CON..
 SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all

records when there is a match in left (table1) or
right (table2) table records.
Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the
same.
FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;
 CON..

Figure 1.3. Full outer Join

Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large

result-sets!
 1.8.Functions of union operator

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-

set of two or more SELECT statements.
Every SELECT statement within UNION must have
the same number of columns
The columns must also have similar data types
The columns in every SELECT statement must also
be in the same order
UNION operator syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
 CON..

UNION operator with where clause syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
WHERE condition1
UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2
WHERE condition2
 1.9.Data control language

DCL stands for Data Control Language in

Structured Query Language (SQL). As the name
suggests these commands are used to control
privilege in the database. The privileges (Right to
access the data) are required for performing all the
database operations like creating tables, views, or
sequences.
DCL command is a statement that is used to
perform the work related to the rights, permissions,
and other control of the database system.
 CON..
Need Of DCL commands
Unauthorized access to the data should be prevented
in order to achieve security in our database
DCL commands maintain the database effectively
than anyone else other than database administrator
is not allowed to access the data without permission.
These commands provide flexibility to the data
administrator to set and remove database
permissions in granular fashion.
 GRANT

This command is used to grant permission to the

user to perform a particular operation on a
particular object. If you are a database
administrator and you want to restrict user
accessibility such as one who only views the data
or may only update the data. You can give the
privilege permission to the users according to your
wish.
Syntax:
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_
USER, ANOTHER_USER;
 REVOKE
This command is used to take permission/access
back from the user. If you want to return permission
from the database that you have granted to the users
at that time you need to run REVOKE command.
Syntax:
REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE F
ROM USER1, USER2;
 1.10.Transaction control language
Transactions group a set of tasks into a single execution
unit. Each transaction begins with a specific job and
ends when all the tasks in the group successfully
completed. If any of the tasks fail, the transaction fails.
Therefore, a transaction has only two
results: success or failure. BEGIN:
Incomplete steps result in the failure of the transaction.
A database transaction, by definition, must be atomic,
consistent, isolated, and durable.
These are popularly known as ACID properties. These
properties can ensure the concurrent execution of
multiple transactions without conflict.
 Properties of Transaction

Atomicity: The outcome of a transaction can either be

completely successful or completely unsuccessful. The
whole transaction must be rolled back if one part of it
fails.
Consistency: Transactions maintain integrity restrictions
by moving the database from one valid state to another.
Isolation: Concurrent transactions are isolated from one
another, assuring the accuracy of the data.
Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its
modifications remain in effect even in the event of a
system failure.
 CON..
COMMIT
This command is used to save the data permanently.
Whenever we perform any of the DML command like -INSERT,
DELETE or UPDATE, these can be rollback if the data is not stored
permanently. So, in order to be at the safer side COMMIT command is
used.
Syntax: commit;
ROLLBACK
This command is used to get the data or restore the data to the last save
point or last committed state. If due to some reasons the data inserted,
deleted or updated is not correct, you can roll back the data to a
particular save point or if save point is not done, then to the last
committed state.
Syntax: rollback;
SAVEPOINT
This command is used to save the data at a particular point temporarily,
so that whenever needed can be rollback to that particular point.
Syntax: Save point A;
CON..

Example: Consider the following student table

UPDATE STUDENT
SET NAME = ‘Sherlock’
WHERE NAME = ‘Jolly’;
COMMIT;
ROLLBACK;
By using the above command, you can update the
record and save it permanently by
using COMMIT command.
 CON..
Now after COMMIT:
If commit was not performed then the changes made by
the update command can be rollback.
Now if no COMMIT is performed.
UPDATE STUDENT
SET NAME = ‘Sherlock’
WHERE STUDENT_NAME = ‘Jolly’;
After update command the table will be:
 Con..

Now if ROLLBACK is performed on the above

table:
rollback;
After Rollback:
CON..
 CON..
If on the above table savepoint is performed:
INSERT into STUDENT
VALUES ('Jack', 95);
Commit;
UPDATE NAME
SET NAME= ‘Rossie’
WHERE marks= 70;
SAVEPOINT A;
INSERT INTO STUDENT
VALUES (‘Zack’, 76);
SAVEPOINT B;
INSERT INTO STUDENT
VALUES (‘Bruno’, 85);
SAVEPOINT C;
SELECT * FROM STUDENT;
CON..
 CON..
Now if we Rollback to SAVEPOINT B:

Rollback to B;

The resulting Table will be-

 CON..
Now if we Rollback to SAVEPOINT A:

Rollback to A;

The resulting Table will be-

 Unit Two: SQL statements with functions

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary

information regarding the following content coverage
and topics

 Arithmetic operations
 String functions and operators
 Mathematical functions
 Date functions
 2.1.Arithmetic operations

 Arithmetic operators can perform arithmetical

operations on numeric operands involved.
Arithmetic operators are addition (+),
subtraction (-), multiplication (*) and division
(/). Operator
+(Add)
Meaning
Addition
-(Subtract) Subtraction
*(Multiply) Multiplication
/(Divide) Division
%(Modulo) Returns the integer reminder of a
division
 Con..
Arithmetic operations syntax:

SELECT column_name arithmetic operator

FROM [table_name] WHERE [expression];
 2.2.String functions and operators
• The following table shows some string functions. All string functions works with the select
statement.

Function Description
ASCII Returns the ASCII for the specified character
CHAR Returns the character based on ASCII
CHARINDEX Returns the position of a substring in a string
DATALENGTH Returns the number of bytes used to represent an expression

DIFFERENCE Compare two SOUNDEX values and returns integer value

LEFT Extract a number of characters by starting from the left
UPPER Convert a string in to upper case
LTRIM Remove leading spaces from a string
SUBSTRING Extract some characters from a string
REPLICATE Replicates a string a specified number of times
 Con..
The ASCII () function returns the ASCII value
for the specific character.
ASCII syntax

ASCII (character)
Character parameter returns the ASCII value. If
more than one character is entered, it will only
return the value for the first character
 Con..
The CHAR () function returns the character based on
the ASCII code.
CHAR syntax
CHAR (code)
Code parameter returns the ASCII number code for the character
The CHARINDEX () function searches for a substring in a string, and
returns the position.
If the substring is not found, this function returns 0.
 Con..

CHARINDEX syntax
CHARINDEX (substring, string, start)
Substring parameter is the one to search for

String parameter is the one to be searched

Start parameter is optional where the search will

start
 Con..
The DATALENGTH () function returns the number
of bytes used to represent an expression.
Note: The DATALENGTH () function counts both
leading and trailing spaces when calculating the
length of the expression.

DATALENGTH syntax
DATALENGTH (expression)
Expression parameter is the one that return data type length
 Con..

The DIFFERENCE () function compares two

SOUNDEX values, and returns an integer.
The integer value indicates the match for the two
SOUNDEX values, from 0 to 4.
0 indicates weak or no similarity between the
SOUNDEX values. 4 indicate strong similarity or
identically SOUNDEX values.
 Con..

DIFFERENCE syntax

DIFFERENCE (expression, expression)

The two expressions are to be compared. Can be
contrast, variable or column

The LEFT () function extracts a number of characters

from a string (starting from left).
LEFT syntax

LEFT (string, number_of_chars)

 Con..

String operator is the one to extract from

Number_of_chars operator, it is the number of

characters to extract If the number exceeds the number
of characters in string, it returns string

The UPPER () function converts a string to upper-case.

UPPER syntax

UPPER (text)
 Con..
Text parameter is the string to be converted

The LTRIM () function removes leading spaces from a

string.
Note: Also look at the RTRIM () function.

LTRIM syntax

LTRIM (string)
String parameter is the one to remove leading spaces from.
 Con..

The SUBSTRING () function extracts some

characters from a string.
SUBSTRING syntax

SUBSTRING (string, start, length)

String parameter is the one the string to be
extracted from Start parameter is the first position
in string is 1
 Con..
Length parameter is number of characters to extract. Must
be a positive number

The REPLICATE () function repeats a string a specified

number of times.
REPLICATE syntax

REPLICATE (string, integer)

String parameter is the string to repeated

Integer parameter is the number of times to repeat the string

 Mathematical functions

The following table shows some mathematical

functions. All string functions works with the
SELECT statement.
Function Description
COUNT Returns the number of records returned by a select query
AVG Returns the average value of an expression
DEGREES Converts a value in radians to degrees
MAX Returns the maximum value in a set of values
SQUARE Returns the square of a number
SUM Calculates the sum of a set of values
POWER Calculates the sum of a set of values
TAN Returns the tangent of a number
COS Returns cosine of a number
CEILING Returns the smallest integer value that is >= a number
 Con..
The COUNT () function returns the number of
records returned by a select query.
Note: NULL values are not counted.

COUNT () Syntax

COUNT (expression)
Expression parameter is a field or a string value
 Con..
The AVG () function returns the average value of an expression.

Note: NULL values are ignored.

AVG () syntax
AVG (expression), the Expression parameter is a numeric value
The DEGREES () function converts a value in radians to degrees.
DEGREES () syntax

DEGREES (number)
Number parameter is a numeric value
The MAX () function returns the maximum value in a set of values.

MAX () syntax

MAX (expression)
 Con..
Expression parameter is a numeric value

The SQUARE () function returns the square of a number.

SQUARE () syntax

SQUARE (number)
Number parameter is a positive number to calculate the square

The SUM () function calculates the sum of a set of values.

Note: NULL values are ignored.

SUM () syntax

SUM (expression)
 Con..
Expression parameter is a field or a formula

The POWER () function returns the value of a number raised to the

power of another number.
POWER () syntax

POWER (a, b)
•A parameter is a number (the base) and B parameter is a number (the
exponent)

The TAN () function returns the tangent of a number.

TAN () syntax

TAN (number)
 Con..

Number parameter is a numeric value

The COS () function returns the cosine of

number.
COS () syntax

COS (number)
Number parameter is a numeric value
 Con..

The CEILING () function returns the smallest

integer value that is larger than or equal to a
number.
CEILING () syntax

CEILING (number)
Number parameter is a numeric value
 2.4. Date functions

The following table shows some date functions

Function Description

CURRENTTIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time

DATEADD Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the date

DATEDIFF Returns the difference between two dates

DATEPART Returns a single part of a date/time

CONVERT Displays date/time data in different formats

GETDATE Returns the current database system date and time

 Con..

The CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function returns the

current date and time, in a 'YYYY-MM-DD
hh:mm:ss.mmm' format.
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP syntax

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
The DATEADD () function adds or subtracts a
time/date interval to a date and then returns the date.
DATEADD () syntax
 Con..

DATEADD (date part, number, date)

Interval parameter is to add time/date interval. Can be one of the following values:
yyyy, yy = Year
qq, q = Quarter
mm, m = month
dy, y = Day of the year
day, dd, d = Day
ww, wk = Week
dw, w = Weekday
hh = hour
mi, n = Minute
ss, s = Second
ms = Millisecond
 Con..

 Number parameter is the number of intervals to add to

date. Can be positive (to get dates in the future) or
negative (to get dates in the past)
 Date parameter is the date that will be modified.
The DATEDIFF () function returns the difference
between two dates.
DATEDIFF () syntax

DATEDIFF (date_part, start_date, end_date)

Interval parameter is the part to be returned
 Con..

 yyyy, yy = Year
 qq, q = Quarter
 mm, m = month
 dy, y = Day of the year
 dd, d = Day
 ww, wk = Week
 dw, w = Weekday
 hh = hour
 mi, n = Minute
 ss, s = Second
 ms = Millisecond
start date and end date parameters are the two dates to calculate the difference
between.
 Con..

The DATEPART () function is used to return a

single part of a date/time, such as year, month, day,
hour, minute, etc.
DATEPART () syntax

DATEPART (datepart,date)
Where date is a valid date expression and date part
can be one of the following:

Interval parameter is the part to be returned

 Con..

 yyyy, yy = Year
 qq, q = Quarter
 mm, m = month
 dy, y = Day of the year
 dd, d = Day
 ww, wk = Week
 dw, w = Weekday
 hh = hour
 mi, n = Minute
 ss, s = Second
 ms = Millisecond
 Con..
The CONVERT () function is a general function that converts an
expression of one data type to another.
The CONVERT () function can be used to display date/time data in
different formats.

CONVERT () syntax

CONVERT (data_type(length),expression,style)
data_type(length) Specifies the target data type (with an optional
length)
expression Specifies the value to be converted
style Specifies the output format for the date/time
 Con..

The GETDATE () function returns the current

date and time from the SQL Server.
GETDATE () syntax

GETDATE ()
 Unit Three: SQL statements with aggregation and filtering

This unit is developed to provide you the

necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics
 Function of group by statement
 Function of having clause
 Backup database
 3.1. Function of group by statement

The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the

same values into summary rows. It is often used with
aggregate functions (COUNT (), MAX (), MIN (), SUM
(), AVG ()) to group the result-set by one or more
columns.
The GROUP BY Statement in SQL is used to arrange identical
data into groups with the help of some functions. i.e., if a
particular column has the same values in different rows, then it
will arrange these rows in a group.
 Con..

Features

GROUP BY clause is used with the SELECT statement.

In the query, the GROUP BY clause is placed after the
WHERE clause.
In the query, the GROUP BY clause is placed before the
ORDER BY clause if used.
In the query, the Group BY clause is placed before the
Having clause.
Place condition in the having clause.
 Con..

GROUP BY Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);
 Con..

Example: let’s say we have a customers table with

the following data
OrderI CustomerI EmployeeI OrderDate Country
D D D
10248 90 5 1996-07-04 Adama
10249 81 6 1996-07-05 Welkite
10250 34 4 1996-07-08 Adama
 Con..

If we want the number of customers in each

country, sorted high to low: we can write the
following query

SELECT COUNT (CustomerID), Country

FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT (CustomerID) DESC;
I. GROUP BY With JOIN
Below there is a customers table with the
following data

OrderI CustomerI EmployeeI OrderDate Shippe

D D D rID
10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3
10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1
10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2
 Con..

And here there is a shippers table with the

following data
ShipperID ShipperName
1 Speedy Express
2 United Package
3 Federal Shipping
 Con..

If we want to retrieve the number of orders sent by

each shipper, we can write the following SQL
statement

SELECT Shippers.ShipperName, COUNT

(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders from Orders
LEFT JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID =
Shippers.ShipperID GROUP BY ShipperName;Sorting
aggregated data
 II.GROUP BY With ORDER BY CLAUSE

you can sort aggregate data using the ORDER

BY clause in combination with the aggregate
functions. Sorting aggregate data in SQL Server
involves using aggregate functions to calculate
summary values and then sorting the result set
based on those calculations
 3.2. Function of having clause

The HAVING clause was introduced in SQL to

allow the filtering of query results based on
aggregate functions and groupings, which cannot
be achieved using the WHERE clause that is
used to filter individual rows.
 Con..

In simpler terms MYSQL, the HAVING clause is used to

apply a filter on the result of GROUP BY based on the
specified condition. The conditions are Boolean type i.e. use
of logical operators (AND, OR). This clause was included in
SQL as the WHERE keyword failed when we use it with
aggregate expressions. Having is a very generally used clause
in SQL. Similar to WHERE it helps to apply conditions, but
HAVING works with groups. If you wish to filter a group, the
HAVING clause comes into action.
 Con..
Some important points:

 Having clause is used to filter data according to the conditions

provided.
 Having a clause is generally used in reports of large data.
 Having clause is only used with the SELECT clause.
 The expression in the syntax can only have constants.
 In the query, ORDER BY is to be placed after the HAVING clause, if
any.
 HAVING Clause is implemented in column operation.
 Having clause is generally used after GROUPBY.
 Con..
The main difference between where and having clause
HAVING clause syntax
SELECT col_1, function_name(col_2)
FROM tablename
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column1, column2
HAVING Condition
ORDER BY column1, column2
Example: Below there is a customer table
Where Clause in SQL Having Clause in SQL

Applied before GROUP BY clause Used after GROUP BY clause

Applicable with multiple row

Used with single row operations such
functions such as Sum, count and so
as Upper, Lower and so on
on
 Con..
Custom CustomerNam ContactName Address City Postal Country
erID e Code

1 Alfreds Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany

Futterkiste

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México D.F. 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución
helados 2222

3 Antonio Antonio Mataderos México D.F. 05023 Mexico

Moreno Moreno 2312
Taquería
4 Around the Thomas 120 Hanover London WA1 UK
Horn Hardy Sq. 1DP

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsväge Luleå S-958 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund n8 22
 Con..

If we want to lists the number of customers in

each country. And only include countries with
more than 5 customers: the SQL statement will be

SELECT COUNT (CustomerID), Country

FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT (CustomerID) > 5;
 Con..
If we want to lists the number of customers in each
country, sorted high to low (Only include countries with
more than 5 customers): the SQL statement will be

SELECT COUNT (CustomerID), Country

FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT (CustomerID) > 5
ORDER BY COUNT (CustomerID) DESC;
 3.4. Backup database

The BACKUP DATABASE statement is used in

SQL Server to create a full back up of an
existing SQL database.

Syntax

BACKUP DATABASE databasename

TO DISK = 'filepath';
 Con..

Backup with differential

A differential backup reduces the backup time (since only
the changes are backed up).

The following SQL statement creates a differential back

up of the database "testDB":

Example: BACKUP DATABASE testDB TO DISK = 'D:\

backups\testDB.bak' WITH DIFFERENTIAL;