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ELE321 7 Pulse Modulation

The document discusses Pulse Modulation, detailing its two main categories: Analog Pulse Modulation (APM) and Digital Pulse Modulation (DPM), along with various techniques such as PAM, PWM, and PPM. It explains the sampling process, including the Nyquist Sampling Theorem, and the importance of maintaining an adequate sampling rate to avoid issues like aliasing. Additionally, it covers the principles of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), including sampling, quantization, and coding, highlighting the trade-offs involved in quantization levels and errors.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
8 views47 pages

ELE321 7 Pulse Modulation

The document discusses Pulse Modulation, detailing its two main categories: Analog Pulse Modulation (APM) and Digital Pulse Modulation (DPM), along with various techniques such as PAM, PWM, and PPM. It explains the sampling process, including the Nyquist Sampling Theorem, and the importance of maintaining an adequate sampling rate to avoid issues like aliasing. Additionally, it covers the principles of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), including sampling, quantization, and coding, highlighting the trade-offs involved in quantization levels and errors.

Uploaded by

bsc-55-20
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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ELE321

PULSE MODULATION

by
E Kachokola
Pulse
Modulation
• Pulse modulation includes many different methods of
converting information into pulse form for transferring
pulses from a source to a destination.
• Divided into two categories;
1.Analog Pulse Modulation (APM)
2. Digital Pulse Modulation (DPM)
Pulse
Modulation
Involves
• Sampling analog information signal
• Converting samples into discrete pulses
• Transport the pulses over physical transmission
medium.
• Four methods of Pulse


Modulation
1. PAM
2. PWM Analog Pulse Modulation
3. PPM
4. PCM  Digital Pulse Modulation
Sampling

• What is sampling?
• Sampling is the process of taking periodic samples of the
waveform
to be transmitted.
• “the more samples that are taken, the more final outcome
looks like the original wave. However if fewer samples are
taken, then other kinds information could be transmitted.”
Sampling
• Pulse modulation techniques deal with discrete signals.
• There is need to convert continuous time signals into discrete.
• Sampling is process of converting continuous time signals into
equivalent discrete time signals. A certain instant of data is
continually sampled in the sampling process.
• Figure shows a continuous-time signal x(t) and the corresponding
sampled signal xs(t).
Sampling
Terms
amplitude, sampled at equal intervals of time 𝑇𝑠, which is
• Sampling signal is a periodic train of pulses, having unit

• This data is transmitted at the time instants 𝑇𝑠 and the


called as sampling time.

carrier signal is transmitted at the remaining time.

• Sampling Rate:
• To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples

period 𝑇𝑠.
should be fixed. That gap can be termed as the sampling

• Reciprocal of the sampling period is known as sampling

𝒇
or sampling rate 𝑓𝑠 . � 𝑻
frequency

=� 𝒔 𝟏
Sampling Methods
• Sampling
methods:

i. Ideal – An impulse at each sampling instant.


ii. Natural – A pulse of short width with varying amplitude.
iii. Flat Top – Uses sample and hold, like natural but with single
amplitude value.
Sampling Methods
i. Instantaneous Sampling or Impulse Sampling:
• Sampling function is train of spectrum remains constant
impulses
throughout frequency range. It is not practical.

ii. Natural sampling:


• The spectrum is weighted by a sinc function.
• Amplitude of high frequency components reduces.

iii. Flat top sampling:


• Here top of the samples remains constant.
• In the spectrum high frequency components are attenuated
due to
sinc pulse roll off. This is known as Aperture effect.
• If pulse width increases aperture effect is more i.e. more
attenuation of high frequency components.
Nyquist Sampling Theorem

• Sampling theorem (Nyquist’s theorem): is used to


determine minimum sampling rate for any signal so
that the signal will be correctly restored at the
receiver.
• Nyquist’s theorem states that, “The original information
signal can be reconstructed at the receiver with minimal
distortion if the sampling rate in the pulse modulation
system is equal to or greater than twice the maximum
information signal frequency”

the rate 𝑓𝑠 , which is greater than or equal to twice the


• OR “a signal can be exactly reproduced if it is sampled at

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑊
maximum frequency of the given signal W.”

• Where, fs is the sampling rate, W is the highest frequency of


the
given signal.
• If the sampling rate is equal to twice the maximum
Basic Condition of Sampling Process

• Nyquist sampling theorem delivers the theory of


sufficient sample rate in terms of bandwidth for the class
of functions that are bandlimited.
• Sampling f s  2 fm
frequency
fs= sampling frequency,

fm(max) = maximum frequency of the modulating


signal.

• When the modulating signal is sampled at a minimum


sampling frequency, the frequency spectrum is as
shown in figure 4.1.
• In practice it is difficult to design a low pass filter, in
order to restore
the original modulating signal.
Basic Condition of Sampling Process
1) Sampling at 𝑓𝑠 =
2𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
V( Volts)

fs 2fs

𝑓𝑠 = 2𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
Figure 4.1: Freq. spectrum of modulating signal sampled at
Basic Condition of Sampling Process
>
•𝑓𝑠 This sampling rate creates a guard band between 𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥) and
2) Sampling at

2𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
the lowest frequency component (𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)) of the
sampling harmonics.
• Therefore a more practical LPF can be used to restore the
modulating signal.

>
at 𝑓𝑠
Figure 4.2 Sampling
Basic Condition of Sampling Process
3) Sampling at 𝑓𝑠 < 2𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
• When the sampling rate is less than the minimum value, there is
overlapping of information, which leads up to mixing up and loss of
information. This unwanted phenomenon is called aliasing.
• Aliasing can be referred to as “the phenomenon of a high-frequency
component in the spectrum of a signal, taking on the identity of a
low-frequency component in the spectrum of its sampled version.”

Figure 4.3 Sampling at 𝑓𝑠 <


2𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
Basic Condition of Sampling Process

• Aliasing effect can be eliminated by using an anti-aliasing filter

Nyquist rate (𝒇𝒔 = 𝟐𝑾), or in this case, 𝒇𝒔 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎


prior to sampling and using a sampling rate slightly higher than

Anti-aliasing Sampler
g(kTs )
g(t) Filter
Conclusion on Sampling
• The sampling rate should be such that the data in the
message
signal should neither be lost nor it should get over-
lapped.
𝒇𝒔 > 𝟐𝑾

𝒇𝒔 = 𝒇𝒔 <
𝟐𝑾 𝟐𝑾
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM)
• The simplest form of pulse modulation
• In Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) technique, the
amplitude of the pulse carrier varies, which is proportional
to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
• The pulse amplitude modulated signal will follow the
amplitude of the original signal, as the signal traces out
the path of the whole wave.
• In natural PAM, a signal sampled at Nyquist rate can be
reconstructed, by passing it through an efficient Low
Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cutoff frequency.
• The following figures explain PAM.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM)
• Though the PAM signal is passed through a LPF, it cannot
recover the signal without distortion. Hence, to avoid this noise,
use flat-top sampling.
• The flat-top PAM signal is shown in the following figure

• Flat-top sampling is the process in which, the sampled signal


can be represented in pulses for which the amplitude of the
signal cannot be changed with respect to the analog signal,
to be sampled.
• The tops of amplitude remain flat.
• This process simplifies the circuit design.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is also called Pulse Duration


Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
• In this technique, the width or the duration or the time of
the pulse carrier varies, which is proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
• Amplitude limiters are used to make the amplitude of the
signal constant. These circuits clip off the amplitude to a
desired level, and hence the noise is limited.
• The following figure explains the types of PWM.
• Either the leading edge, trailing edge or both may be
varied by the
modulating signal.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

There are three types of PWM


o The leading edge of the pulse being constant, the trailing
edge varies according to the message signal. The
waveform for this type of PWM is denoted as (a) in
the above figure.
o The trailing edge of the pulse being constant, the leading
edge varies according to the message signal. The
waveform for this type of PWM is denoted as (b) in
the above figure.
o The center of the pulse being constant, the leading edge and
the trailing edge varies according to the message signal.
The waveform for this type of PWM is denoted as (c)
shown in the above figure.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

• In Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) the amplitude and the


width of the pulses are kept constant, while the position of
each pulse, with reference to the position of a reference
pulse varies according to the instantaneous sampled value
of the message signal.
• The transmitter has to send synchronizing (sync) pulses to
keep the transmitter and the receiver in sync.
• These sync pulses help to maintain the position of the
pulses.
• The following figures explain the PPM.
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

• PPM is done in accordance with the pulse width modulated


signal. Each trailing edge of the pulse width modulated
signal becomes the starting point for pulses in PPM signal.
Hence, the position of these pulses is proportional to the
width of the PWM pulses.

• Advantage:
• As the amplitude and the width are constant, the power
handled is also constant. (Requires constant
transmitter power output)

• Disadvantage:
• Synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver
is a must.
(Depends on transmitter-receiver sync)
Fig.: Waveform for PAM,PWM & PPM
PAM vs PWM vs PPM

• PPM has less noise due to amplitude changes,


because the received pulses may be clipped at the
receiver, thus removing amplitude changes caused by
noise.
• PWM gives better signal to noise performance than
PAM.
• PWM has advantage, when compared with PPM, that is its
pulse are of varying width and therefore of varying power
content. PWM still works if synchronization between
transmitter and receiver fails, whereas PPM does not.
Comparison Between PAM, PWM &
PPM
PAM PWM PPM
Amplitude is varied Width is varied Position is varied
Bandwidth depends Bandwidth depends Bandwidth depends
on the width of the on the rise time of on the rise time of
pulse the pulse the pulse
Instantaneous Instantaneous Instantaneous
transmitter power transmitter power transmitter power
varies with the varies with the remains constant
amplitude of the amplitude and the with the width of
pulses width of the pulses the pulses
System
System complexity is System complexity is
complexity is high
low low
Noise interference is
Noise interference is Noise interference is
high
low low
It is similar to It is similar to It is similar to
amplitude frequency phase
modulation modulation modulation
How to encode analog waveforms ?
(from analog sources into baseband
digital signals)
Natural Sampling
Flat-top Sampling
DIGITAL PULSE MODULATION
(DPM)
• PCM is Pulse
a form Code
of digital Modulation (PCM)
modulation where group of coded pulses
are used to represent the analog signal.
• The analog signal is sampled and converted to a fixed length, serial
binary
number for transmission.
• Figure below shows block diagram of a PCM system (single channel)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• Three main processes in PCM transmission: sampling,
quantization & coding.

• Sample the message signal above the Nyquist frequency


• Quantize the amplitude of each sample
• Encode the discrete amplitudes into a binary codeword
• Caution: PCM isn’t modulation in the usual sense; it’s a type of Analog-to-Digital
Conversion.
Sampling

• Is a process of taking samples of information signal at


a rate of Nyquist’s sampling frequency.

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑊
Quantizati
on
• The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing
the signal with a number of quantization levels.
• Quantization is representing the sampled values of the
amplitude by a finite set of levels, which means converting
a continuous- amplitude sample into a discrete-time signal
• Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of
information.
• The quality of a Quantizer output depends upon the
number of quantization levels used.
• The discrete amplitudes of the quantized output are
called as
representation levels or reconstruction levels.
• The spacing between the two adjacent representation
levels is called a quantum or step-size.
Quantizati
on
• Quantization – is a process of assigning the analog signal
samples
to pre-determined discrete
• levels.
The number of quantization levels, L, depends on the
per sample,
number n, used to code the signal.
of bits L  2n
Where
• The magnitude of the minimum step size of the
quantization levels is called resolution, V
• It is equal in magnitude to the voltage of the least
significant bit of
the magnitude step size of the digital to analog converter
(DAC).

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 , and the minimum voltage 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 of the


• The resolution depends on the maximum voltage,

information

Vmax Vmin
V 
Quantizati
on
• Quantization error or quantization noise is the distortion
introduced during the quantization process when the
modulating signal is not an exact value of the quantized
level.
• It is the difference between original signal and the
quantized signal
magnitude that is :
• Quantization error, Qe = |x(t)| - |q(t)|
Where |x(t)| is the magnitude of original signal
• The maximum Where |q(t)| is the Qe
quantization magnitude of quantized
max  

error, signal V

• Quantization error can be reduced by2increasing the


number of
quantization level BUT this will increase the bandwidth
required.
Types of
Quantization
• There are two types of quantization:
A.Uniform Quantization: quantization levels are
uniformly spaced. There are two types of uniform
quantization: Mid-Rise and Mid- Tread.
B. Non-uniform Quantization: quantization levels are
unequal and mostly the relation between them is
logarithmic.
Mid-Rise vs Mid-tread Uniform
Quantization

i Mid-Rise type: so called because the origin lies in the middle of a


. raising part of the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this
type are even in number.
ii. Mid-Tread type: so called because the origin lies in the middle of a
tread of the stair-case like graph. Quantization levels in this type are
Both odd
the mid-rise
in number.and mid-tread type of uniform quantizer is symmetric
about the origin.
Problem With Uniform Quantization
• Problem: the output SNR is adversely affected by peak to
average power ratio.
• Typically small signal amplitudes occur more often than
large
signal amplitudes.
– The signal does not use the entire range of
quantization levels available with equal
probabilities.
– Small amplitudes are not represented as well as
large
amplitudes, as they are more susceptible to
quantization noise.
Solution: Non-uniform
• Quantization
Nonuniform quantization uses quantization levels of
variable spacing, denser at small signal
amplitudes, broader at large amplitudes.

uniform quantized
nonuniform quantized

4
1
Companding = Compressing +
• AExpanding
practical (and equivalent) solution to
nonuniform quantization:
– Compress the signal first
– Quantize it (using a uniform quantizer)
– Transmit it
– Expand it
• Companding is the corresponding to pre-emphasis
and de- emphasis scheme used for FM.
• Predistort a message signal in order to achieve better
performance in the presence of noise, and then
remove the distortion at the receiver.
• The exact SNR gain obtained with companding depends
on the
exact form of the compression used.
• With proper companding, the output SNR can be made
insensitive to peak to average power ratio.
µ-Law vs A-Law Non-uniform
Quantization

(a) µ-law used in North America and Japan, (b) A-law used in most
countries of the world. Typical values in practice (T1/E1): µ = 255,
A = 87.6.
Encoding
• Encoding is a process where each quantized sample is
digitally encoded into n-bits codeword, where
• n = number of bits/sample n  log2 L
• L = number of quantization
levels
L  2 n

• Transmission bit rate (R) is the rate of information


transmission (bits/sec).
• It depends on the sampling frequency and the number
of bit per sample used to encode the signal and is
given by
• Transmission bit R  n  f s bits /
rate, sec
• Transmission B  n  f s H z
Bandwidth ,
Fig. shows an example of how an audio waveform,
v(t) is sampled, quantized and encoded into 3-bit
PCM system
Advantages and Disadvantages of Pulse
Code Modulation
Advantages of PCM:
• Encoding is possible in PCM.
• Very high noise immunity, i.e. better performance in the
presence
of noise.
• Convenient for long-distance communication.
• Good signal to noise ratio.

Disadvantages of PCM:
• The circuitry is complex.
• It requires a large bandwidth.
• Synchronization is required between transmitter and
receiver.
Applications of PCM and it

Variants
Speech:
– PCM: The voice signal is sampled at 8 kHz, quantized
into
256 levels (8 bits). Thus, a telephone PCM signal requires
64 kbps.
• need to reduce bandwidth requirements
– DPCM (differential PCM): quantize the difference
between consecutive samples; can save 8 to 16
kbps. ADPCM (Adaptive DPCM) can go further
down to 32 kbps.
– Delta modulation: 1-bit DPCM with oversampling;
has even lower symbol rate (e.g., 24 kbps).
• Audio CD: 16-bit PCM at 44.1 kHz sampling rate.
• MPEG audio coding: 16-bit PCM at 48 kHz sampling
rate
compressed to a rate as low as 16 kbps.

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