Memory
Introduction
Physiological changes that occur in brain
It has been viewed as a store or a process
made up of systems and sub-systems
Thus, memory can be defied as the process
by which we encode, store and retrieve
information
Or
“System that receives, organizes, stores and
retrieves information”
Memory processes
Encoding refers to receiving information or
sensory input and transform it into form or
code which can be stored
Storage is the process of actually putting
coded information into memory
Retrieval is the process of gaining access to
stored information when it is needed
Memory types
Sensory memory
Sensory memory refers to retaining of
sensory information for a brief time after the
original stimulus has ceased.
Iconic memory- visual sensory memory
Echoic memory- Auditory sensory memory
Haptic memory- Touch sensory memory
Short Term Memory
STM is memory that holds information received from
the sensory register for up to about 30 seconds
It hold items/information 7+/-2}—Miller magical no. 7
Information can be moved from STM to LTM via a
process called rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal consist of keeping items of
information in the center of attention by repeating
items silently or aloud
Elaborative rehearsal is a way of transferring
information from STM into LTM by making that
information meaningful
Long Term Memory
LTM is used for the storage of information over long
period of time ranging fro hours to a lifetime
Types:
Declarative/explicit memory—Declarative (explicit)
memory is about all the things that people can know—the
facts and information that make up knowledge.
One type of declarative memory is called semantic
memory—which refers to knowledge about meaning of
words, concepts, and objects
The other type of declarative memory is called episodic
memory which refers to storing information about events
that one has experienced in lives.
Non Declarative/implicit memory--Memories for things
that people know how to do, like tying shoes and riding a
bicycle, are a kind of LTM called non-declarative (implicit)
memory.
Models of memory
Exactly how does memory work?
When the storage process occurs, where does that
information go and why?
Memory experts have proposed several different
ways of looking at memory
The models of memory are:
I. Information Processing model- focuses on the way
information is processed through different stages of
memory
II. Level of Processing Model- focuses on the depth of
processing associated with specific information
deeper processing associated with longer retention
Information processing model- Three stage model
ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN MODEL
This approach focuses on the way information is
handled, or processed, through three different
systems of memory.
The model asserts that human memory has three
separate components:
A sensory register, where sensory information
enters memory,
A short-term store, also called working
memory or short-term memory, which receives and
holds input from both the sensory register and the
long-term store, and
A long-term store, where information which has
been rehearsed in the short-term store is held
indefinitely.
Information enters through the sensory system, briefly
registering in sensory memory.
Selective attention filters the information into short-term
memory, where it is held while attention (rehearsal)
continues.
If the information receives enough rehearsal (maintenance
or elaborative), it will enter and be stored in long-term
memory.
Levels of Processing Model—Craik and Lockhart
Information processing theory of memory
viewed memory process in terms of stages.
Information is transferred from stage to stage
until so e of it is lodged in LTM
Another contrasting model of memory involves
what we called level of processing--Craik and
lockhart
According to this model, incoming information
can be worked on at different level of analysis;
the deeper the analysis goes the better the
memory.
Experiment
In a study from 1975 (Craik and Tulving) participants were
given a list of 60 words. Each word was presented along with
three questions.
The participant had to answer one of them.
Those three questions were in one of three categories. One
category of questions was about how the word was presented
visually ("Is the word shown in italics?").
The second category of questions was about the phonemic
qualities of the word ("Does the word begin with the sound
'bee'?").
The third category of questions was presented so that the
reader was forced to think about the word within a certain
context (“he met_on the street"). .
The result of this study showed that the words which contained
deep processing (the latter) were remembered better
The first level is simply structural--Shallow
which goes our immediate awareness of the
environment
At somewhat intermediate level, the
phonological features of the input—what is
sounds like?—are analyzed.
At the deepest level of processing, the
meaning of the input is analyzed.
Thus, good memory results from deeper and
elaborative processing of information.
Rehearsal plays an important role in deeper
processing of information.
According to the L-O-P model, simply
maintenance rehearsal is not enough for good
memory.
Information to be reached at deeper level it
must be elaborative. In other words rehearsal
must process the information to the meaning
level if the information is to be well retained.
Forgetting
Forgetting typically involves a failure
in memory retrieval. While the information
is somewhere in long-term memory, you are
not able to actually retrieve and remember
it.
Thus, forgetting is the apparent loss of
information already encoded and stored in
an individual's short or long-term memory.
Forgetting curve
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1913) was one of the
first researcher to study forgetting.
He conducted a series of tests on himself,
which included memorization of different
nonsense syllable words such as “WID”,
“ZOF and “KAF”, and then he tested himself
to see if he could retain the information after
different time periods.
The result of the test shows that forgetting
happens quickly within the first hour after
learning the lists and then tapers off
gradually.
Ebbinghaus found that his recall of words
from his memorized word lists was greatest
immediately after learning the list but
rapidly decreased within the first hour.
After the first hour, forgetting leveled off.
Causes
While you might find yourself wondering why
is my memory so bad, forgetting is part of life
and people forget surprisingly fast.
Research has found that approximately 56%
of information is forgotten within an hour,
66% after a day, and 75% after six days
Psychologist has managed to offer different
explanations, factors and reasons on why
people forget things
Encoding failure
One of the simplest is that some things never get encoded
in the first place. This isn’t forgetting so much as it is
encoding failure, the failure to process information into
memory.
The way information is Encoded affects the ability to
remember it. Processing information at a deeper level
makes it harder to forget.
Memory Trace Decay
One of the older theories of forgetting
involves the concept of a memory trace.
A memory trace is some physical change in
the brain, perhaps in a neuron or in the
activity between neurons, which occurs when
a memory is formed.
Over time, if these traces are not used, they
may decay, fading into nothing.
Interference Theory
Sometimes people forget due to a phenomenon
known as interference. Some memories compete and
interfere with other memories.
When information is very similar to other
information that was previously stored in memory,
interference is more likely to occur.
There are two basic types of interference:
Proactive interference is when an old memory
makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a
new memory.
Retroactive interference occurs when new
information interferes with your ability to remember
previously learned information.
Description Description
Encoding Failure The information is not attended to and fails to
be encoded.
Decay Information that is not accessed decays from
the storage system over time.
Proactive Older information already in memory
Interference interferes with the learning of newer
information.
Retroactive Newer information interferes with the
Interference retrieval of older information.
