Fracture Mechanics
& Fatigue
Session Objectives
• Students will learn the principles of fracture mechanics and material
fatigue, applying concepts like the Paris Law and analyzing crack
growth in materials subjected to cyclic loads.
• Ref:
• Ashby (2) Ch. 8-9
Failure Mode of Structures
1. Fracture
2. Excessive Plastic Deformation
3. Buckling
4. Corrosion
5. Fatigue
6. Creep
Failure Mode of Structures
1. Fracture
2. Excessive Plastic Deformation
3. Buckling
4. Corrosion
5. Fatigue
6. Creep
https://www.pprune.org/rumours-news/624717-delta-757-hard-landing-morning-
azores-pdl-3.html#&gid=1&pid=1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckling#/media/File:Buckled_column.svg
https://aeronauticausa.com/technical-services/engineering-services/
http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/textbooks_dvd_only/DAN/
buckling/intro/vitreousSiloBIG.jpg
Failure Mode of Structures
1. Fracture due to σ > σu
2. Excessive Plastic Deformation due to σ > σys
3. Buckling due to compressive load P > Pcr
4. Corrosion due to reaction with environment
5. Fatigue due to repeated loding
6. Creep due to stresses at high temperature
CORROSION
•Corrosion is deterioration of a substance
(usually a metal) or its properties because of a
reaction with its environment
•The driving force for corrosion is to revert a
high energy state to a more stable, low energy
state
INTRODUCTION TO DAMTOL
General Surface Corrosion or Uniform Corrosion
INTRODUCTION TO DAMTOL
Exfoliation Corrosion
INTRODUCTION TO DAMTOL
FATIGUE
• Fatigue is a failure mechanism that occurs as a
result of a large number of load applications, where
a single load cycle do no harm because it is under
the static failure load
• Cyclic loads cause cracks to nucleate, grow, and
finally lead to separation of the structure
Examples of Cracks in Structures
Clarence Smith, Tips on Fatigue, page 5-15 (above)
Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988
(cont’)
Multiple-Site Damage
NASA Conference Publication 3160; page 141
https://www.modernrailways.com/article/rolling-stock-cracks-crisis-update
19
Point to Discuss
1. Fatigue crack occurs in a component
with tensile stress. Which component in
aircraft structures are prone to fatigue
failure
2. Which part of aircraft is prone to
corrosion damage
THE CONCEPT OF FORCE FLOW
https://www.quora.com/What-are-force-flow-lines-in-a-material-and-how-can-a-
design-be-optimised-using-the-same-concept
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_concentration
https://www.fracturemechanics.org/images/ellipse/ellipse_60.svg
https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials
Stress Path When There is a Notch
𝛔𝐨 𝛔𝐨
𝛔𝐨 𝛔𝐨
Gordon, JE. 1978. Structures. Great Britain: Pitman Publishing Limited.
http://www.varifrank.com/archives/aviation/index.php
Havilland Comet Series 1, Small Radius Rounding of Windo
INTRODUCTION TO DAMTOL
Stress Concentration at Holes
Concentration of Stress at Notch Tip
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.
Point to Discuss
1. Does the material used influence value
the stress concentration in a structure?
2. How can you lower the stress
concentration in a structure?
3. Can you consider a change in dimension
as cause for stress concentration?
What Do You Get
Stress Concetration occur due to change of
dimensions & cut outs
Stress Concetration does not depend on material
properties
The stress concentration factor depends on
geometry
The maximum stress can be reduced by changing
geomentry e.g giving radius at corners also by
giving reinforcement
Kt Stress Concentration Factor is ………..
Kt is used to quantify how "concentrated" the
stress is. It is defined as the ratio of the highest
stress in the element to the reference stress
(nominal stress)
Consider An Ellipse with a very large a and
small b. What is the influence on value of Kt ?
How if the ellipse has zero b? It becomes a ……
What is the value of Kt of a crack?
Mekanika Teknik vs Mekanika Retak
Stress Intensity Factor
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
• In 1957 Irwin reexamined the problem of stress distribution
around a crack
• He analyzed an infinite plate with a crack
• Using the theory of elasticity the stresses are dominated by
a 3
x cos 1 sin sin
2 r 2 2 2
a 3
y cos 1 sin sin
2 r 2 2 2
a 3
xy sin cos cos
2 r 2 2 2
assumption r << a
a
ij f ij LEFM valid if plasticity remains
2 r small compared to the over all
dimensions of crack and cracked
Remote stress applied to a cracked material
The local stress is proportional to
the number of lines of force which
rises steeply as the crack tip is
approach
c – crack length
r – distance from crack tip
σ – remote stress
Figure 8.3 Y – geometric constant
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1.3 Stress Concentration, Fracture and Griffith
Theory (cont’)
• The term a is given the symbol K (stress intensity factor)
KI a for an infinite plate
• The relation of K to G is
K I2 for plane stress condition
G
E
• The use of G and KI leads to fracture criterion i.e. G c and Kic i.e.
fracture occur if
G = Gc or KI = KIc
1.3 Stress Concentration, Fracture and Griffith
Theory (cont’)
Stress Intensity Factor
K a for infinite plate
K a for other geometry
can be obtained from : 1. handbook solution
2. approximate
method
3. numerical
method
1.4 THE STRESS AT A CRACK TIP
The three modes of loading
Broek; Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics; fig. 1-3
1.4 THE STRESS AT A CRACK TIP (cont’)
K I a
• is a dimensionless factor, which depends on geometry
a W , a D, a R
where W, D, R represent certain size parameters
• is the remote stress
Stress Intensity Factor
For any value of r, the local
stress scales with σ√πc
Mode 1 stress intensity factor
Mode 1 indicates tensile loading normal to the crack
Typically, loading modes are designated by Roman numerals – K1 would be designated as KI – K1 is used
throughout the book which goes against the universally accepted use of Roman numerals
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K is a parameter describing the …….. in the vicinity
of the crack tip
A longer crack will have a ……. K, also the higher
remote stress will result in a ………K
The maximum value of K that can be carried is limited
by material property i.e ……………
• Fracture occurs when
• In case of fatigue, crack growth depends on K
When do we use Kt (stress concentration Factor)
and when we use K (stress intensity factor)?
Stress Intensity Factor
Stress Intensity Factor
Bannantine; fig. 3-4, page 93 & 94
Fracture Toughness
• Cracks propagate when the stress intensity factor exceeds a critical value
• The critical value is known as the fracture toughness K1c
σ* - tensile stress at
which the crack
propagates
* For this geometry, the value of Y
is 1 if c << w
Figure 8.4
K 1c
Example 8.1
The stainless steel and polystyrene rulers in Example 5.2 are loaded as cantilevers of length 250 mm.
Both have sharp transverse scratches of depth 0.2 mm, near the base of the cantilever on the tensile
side. For this surface crack geometry, assume the factor Y in equation (8.4) is 1.1. The fracture
toughness K1c of steel and polystyrene are 80 and 1 MPa.m1/2, respectively. Calculate the stress
needed to cause fast fracture in each case. Will the cantilevers fail by yielding or by fast fracture?
ANSWER: From equation (8.4), the stress at fast fracture for stainless steel is
This is far in excess of its yield strength—meaning that the ruler will yield before it fractures. Conversely, for polystyrene the
fracture stress is
which is less than its yield strength—so the ruler will fracture before it yields.
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th edition Copyright (c)2019 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff,
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K 1c
Example 8.2
A compact tension specimen, as in Figure 8.4, is manufactured from an Al alloy with dimensions w =
50 mm and b = 20 mm, with a sharp pre-crack of length c = 10 mm. The maximum load capacity
available on the test machine is 50 kN. Is the machine capacity sufficient to fracture the alloy, if its
fracture toughness is 25 MPa.m1/2?
ANSWER: From Figure (8.4), the stress intensity factor is
So for K1c = 25 MPa.m1/2, the failure load will be:
So the test machine is not strong enough—we need to use either a larger machine, or reduce the sample thickness (though there
are limits on this for a K1c test to be considered valid).
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th edition Copyright (c)2019 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff,
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Energy Release Rate G and Toughness Gc
For a crack to grow, sufficient external work must be done which is in the form of released elastic energy
γ – surface energy
Figure 8.5
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th
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Process Zone
A plastic zone forms at the
crack tip where the stress
would otherwise exceed the
yield strength
Size of process zone:
Figure 8.6
A material transitions from yield to fracture at a critical crack length
Crack length necessary for
fracture at a materials yield strength
Stress required for fracture
for a given crack length
Figure 8.7
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th
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K 1c
Example 8.3
Estimate the plastic zone sizes for the cracks in the stainless steel and polystyrene rulers in Example
8.1.
ANSWER: The plastic zone size is given by
For stainless steel this is much greater than the crack depth of 0.2 mm
and greater than
the thickness of the ruler. For polystyrene it is , which is less than the crack
depth. So the
stainless steel ruler yields, and the polystyrene one fractures.
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th edition Copyright (c)2019 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff,
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Table 8.1 Approximate crack lengths for transition
between yield and fracture
CRITICAL CRACK LENGTHS ARE A MEASURE OF THE DAMAGE TOLERANCE OF A
MATERIAL
TOUGH METALS ARE ABLE TO CONTAIN LARGE CRACKS BUT STILL YIELD IN A
PREDICTABLE, DUCTILE MANNER
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David Cebon
Fracture Toughness - Modulus
Values range from 0.01 – 100 MPa√m
• Contours show the toughness, Gc
Figure 8.8
Fracture Toughness -
Strength
Transition crack length
plotted on chart
Values can range from
near-atomic dimensions
for ceramics to almost a
meter for ductile metals
Figure 8.9
Surface Energy
When a new surface is created, atomic bonds are broken,
requiring some fraction of the cohesive energy Hc
Figure 8.10
Brittle ‘Cleavage’ Fracture
Characteristic of ceramics and
glasses
Local stress rises as 1/√r
toward the crack tip
If it exceeds that required to break
inter-atomic bonds, they separate,
giving a cleavage fracture
Figure 8.11
Fatigue
Fatigue failures occur due to cyclic loading at stresses below a
material’s yield strength
Depends on the amplitude of
the stress and the number of
cycles
Loading cycles can be in the
millions for an aircraft
Fatigue testing must employ
millions of fatigue cycles to
provide meaningful design data
Figure 9.2
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S-N Curves
Stress amplitude
Mean stress
R value of -1 indicates the mean stress is zero
Endurance limit σe
Stress amplitude below which
fracture does not occur at all or
only after a very large number of
Figure 9.3 cycles (>107)
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Predicting Fatigue
Life
Coffin’s Law
For low-cycle fatigue
Basquin’s Law
For high-cycle fatigue
The laws describe the fatigue failure of
uncracked components cycled at a
constant amplitude about a mean
stress of zero
Figure 9.4
K 1c
Example 9.1
The fatigue life of a component obeys Basquin’s law, equation (9.4), with b = 0.1. The component is
loaded cyclically with a sinusoidal stress of amplitude 100 MPa (stress range of 200 MPa) with zero
mean, and has a fatigue life of 200 000 cycles. What will be the fatigue life if the stress amplitude is
increased to 120 MPa (stress range = 240 MPa)?
ANSWER: From equation (9.4),
Hence
This is an 84% reduction in fatigue life for a 20% increase in stress amplitude. Fatigue is very sensitive to stress level.
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th edition Copyright (c)2019 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff,
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Mean Stress and Variable
Amplitude
Goodman’s Rule
The corrected stress range can be
plugged into Basquin’s law
Miner’s Rule of cumulative damage
When the cyclic stress amplitude
changes, the life is calculated using
Miner’s rule
Figure 9.5
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K 1c
Example 9.2
The component in Example 9.1 is made of a material with a tensile strength σts = 200 MPa. If the
mean stress is 50 MPa (instead of zero), and the stress amplitude is 100 MPa, what is the new fatigue
life?
ANSWER: Using Goodman’s rule, equation (9.7), the equivalent stress amplitude for zero mean stress is:
So, , following the approach in Example 9.1, Basquin’s law gives the new fatigue life to be
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th edition Copyright (c)2019 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff,
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K 1c
Example 9.3
The component in Examples 9.1 and 9.2 is loaded for N1 = 5 000 cycles with a mean stress of 50 MPa
and a stress amplitude of 100 MPa (as per Example 9.2). It is then cycled about zero mean for N2
cycles with the same stress amplitude (as per Example 9.1) until it breaks. Use Miner’s rule, equation
(9.8), to determine N2.
ANSWER: From equation (9.8)
So
Approximately half of the fatigue life is used up at each load level.
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th edition Copyright (c)2019 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff,
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Fatigue Loading of Cracked Components
Fatigue crack growth is studied by cyclically loading specimens
containing a sharp crack
Cyclic stress intensity range
The range ΔK increases with time
under constant cyclic stress
because the crack grows in length
Figure 9.6
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th
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Crack Growth During Cyclic
Loading
The figure shows crack
growth per cycle with
respect to the stress intensity
factor
Safe design requires
calculating the number of
loading cycles possible
before the crack grows to a
dangerous length
Figure 9.7
K 1c
Example 9.4
The polystyrene ruler in Example 8.1 is to be loaded as a cantilever with a cyclic force that varies from
0 to 10 N. (a) What depth of transverse crack is needed at the base of the cantilever for fast fracture
to occur when the end force is 10 N? (b) If the ruler has an initial transverse scratch of depth ci = 0.1
mm, how many cycles of the force will it take before the ruler breaks? The Paris law constants in
equation (9.10) are m = 4 and A = 5 × 10−6 when Δσ is in MPa. (Assume that the scratch is shallow so
that the stress at the crack tip is the same as the stress at the extreme fibre of the beam.)
ANSWER: (a) The stress in the extreme fibre of the bending beam is given by equation (7.1).
Thus
From equation (8.4), the critical crack length (depth) at fast fracture is
Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 4th edition Copyright (c)2019 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff,
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K 1c
Example 9.4 (continued)
(b) From equation (9.10), the range of stress intensity factor is where Δσ = σmax − σmin. In this
case, Δσ = σmax because σmin = 0. The crack starts at length ci and grows steadily according to the Paris law, equation (9.10), dc/dN =
AΔKm, until it reaches the critical length c ∗, when the ruler breaks.
Combining equations (9.9) and (9.10) gives:
from which
where Nf is the number of cycles to failure. Integrating this gives:
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Endurance Limit –
Strength
Endurance limit is the most
important property
characterizing fatigue strength
Metals/Polymers
Glasses/Ceramics
Figure 9.8
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Fatigue Damage
and Cracking
During high-cycle fatigue the
tension cycle produces a tiny
plastic zone which is folded
forward during compression
During low-cycle fatigue the
plastic zone is large enough
for voids to nucleate and
coalesce which advances the
crack
Figure 9.9
