General introduction to the

nervous system

Dr. Jihane Soueid

[email protected]

PHYL 246

February, 2025
 Main textbook: Other reference:

© 2023 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC.
Outline

I. The nervous system

• General functions of the brain
• Divisions of the nervous system
II. Types of neural cells
• Neurons
• Glial cells
III. Axonal growth and repair

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General function of the nervous system

 Detects and responds to environmental changes (internal and

external)
 Perceive and comprehend (analyze information received)
 Operates and controls the body’s essential functions (breathing
and digestion)
 Coordinates all body systems
 Organizes information for immediate and future use (i.e. memory)

Sensory input Integration Motor output

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The Nervous System

The nervous system has two major

divisions:
• the central nervous system (CNS)
• the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The 2 major cell types found in the nervous

system:
• Neurons
• Glial cells

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Functional divisions of the peripheral nervous system

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Model Neuron

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 7

Structure of a Neuron

• Cell body (Soma): Contains nucleus and ribosomes

• Dendrites: Branches that receive information, typically
through neurotransmitters, and conduct impulses to the
cell body
• Axon: A single fiber which maybe quite long, and which
carries outgoing signals to target cells (other neurons,
muscles or gland)
• Initial segment (Axon hillock): Portion of axon that arises
from cell body; generates action potentials; may branch
into collaterals
• Axon terminal (Synaptic knob): End of each branch;
releases neurotransmitters
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 Diagrammatic Representation

(a) Illustration of a typical neuron (b) Micrograph of a neuron

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Structural classification of neurons

Structural classification is based on the number of processes (axons or

dendrites) extending from the cell body.

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Schwann cells and myelin

• In the PNS, glial cells called Schwann cells form

individual myelin sheaths surrounding 1- to 1.5-
millimeters-long segments at regular intervals along some
axons.
• The myelin sheath speeds up conduction of the electrical
signals along the axon and conserves energy.
• Myelin sheaths act as electrical insulators, preventing ions
from crossing the cell membrane and electrical current
from flowing.
• The gaps between regions of the myelin sheath are the
Nodes of Ranvier; these areas permit the exchange of
Na  and K + ions across the cell membrane.
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Formation of a myelin sheath

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(a) Myelin Formed by Schwann Cells and (b) Oligodendrocytes on
Axons. (c) False color photomicrograph of a section through a
myelinated axon in the PNS.

(a) Myelin sheath in PNS (b) Myelin sheath in CNS

(c) Myelinated axon in cross section

(c) Don W. Fawcett/Science Source

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Axonal Transport
Movement of substances & organelles between the Soma and the Axon
terminals (Synaptic knobs).

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings 14

Axonal transport proceeds along microtubules with help
of motor proteins: dynein and kinesin
Kinesins for anterograde
transport: Nutrients, synaptic
vesicles, mitochondria.

Dyneins for retrograde transport:

Recycled growth factors, vesicles.
Also route of entry for pathogens:
tetanus toxin, herpes simplex,
rabies, polio virus.
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Three Classes of Neurons

Afferent neurons

Interneurons

Efferent neurons
PNS CNS

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Characteristics of Three Classes of Neurons

Afferent neurons
• Transmit information into the NS from receptors at their peripheral endings
C

• Single process from the cell body splits into a long peripheral process (axon)
that is in the PNS and a short central process (axon) the enters the C NS
Efferent neurons
• Transmit information out of the CNS to effector cells, particularly muscles,
glands, neurons, and other cells
• Cell body with multiple dendrites and a small segment of the axon are in the
CNS; most of the axon is in the PNS
Interneurons
• Function as integrators and signal changers
• Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons into reflex circuits
• Lie entirely within the CNS
• Account for > 99% of all neurons

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 A Neuron Postsynaptic to One Cell Can be Presynaptic
to Another

• Synapses can use both chemical and electrical stimuli to pass

information.
• Synapses can also be inhibitory or excitatory depending on the
signal/ neurotransmitter being transmitted.

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 NERVE AND TRACTS
• Nerve: Fiber bundle located within the PNS
• Tract: Fiber bundle located in the CNS
• Neuron fibers are collected into bundles of different size called fascicles

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Transverse section of a nerve

Fascicle

Jean-Claude Revy/ISM/Phototake

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Glial Cells of the Central Nervous System

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Glial cells maintain an environment suitable for proper neuron function

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Glial Cells of the CNS

Glial cells provide neurons with physical and metabolic support. Types of
glial cells in the CNS:

• Astrocytes: help regulate the composition of the extracellular fluid in

the CNS by removing potassium ions and neurotransmitters around
synapses, stimulate the formation of tight junctions (for the blood-brain
barrier), and sustain neurons metabolically.

• Microglia: specialized, macrophage-like cells that perform immune

functions in the CNS and may also contribute to synapse remodeling
and plasticity.

• Ependymal cells: line the fluid-filled cavities within the brain and
spinal cord and regulate the production and flow of cerebrospinal fluid.

• Oligodendrocytes: form the myelin sheath of CNS axons.

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Growth and Development of Neurons (1/3)

• Development of the nervous system in the embryo begins

with stem cells that can develop into neurons or glia.
• After the last cell division, each neuronal daughter cell
differentiates, migrates to its final location, and sends out
processes that will become its axon and dendrites.
• A specialized enlargement, the growth cone, forms the tip
of each extending axon and is involved in finding the
correct route and final target for the process.
• As the axon grows, it is guided along the surfaces of other
cells, most commonly glial cells.

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Short video: growth cones of elongating axons

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=op_LdPDVgNo&t=17s

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Growth and Development of Neurons (2/3)

• Route followed by an axon depends on attracting,

supporting, deflecting, or inhibiting influences exerted by
cell adhesion molecules and soluble neurotrophic factors
(growth factors for neural tissue) in the extracellular fluid
round the growth cone or its distant target.
• Once the target of the advancing growth cone is reached,
synapses form.
• During early stages of neural development, which occur
during fetal life and infancy, alcohol and other drugs,
radiation, malnutrition, and viruses can cause permanent
damage to the developing nervous system.

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Growth and Development of Neurons (3/3)

• Throughout the life span, our brain has an amazing ability

to modify its structure and function in response to
stimulation or injury, which is called plasticity. The degree
of neural plasticity varies with age.
• The basic shapes and locations of major neuronal circuits
in the mature central nervous system do not change once
formed.
• The creation and removal of synaptic contacts begun
during fetal development continue throughout life as part
of normal growth, learning, and aging.

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 Stages of axonal injury and repair

Eccentric nucleus

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Regeneration of Axons (1/2)

• If axons are severed, they can repair themselves and

restore significant function provided that the damage
occurs outside the CNS and does not affect the neuron’s
cell body.
• After such an injury, the separated axon segment
degenerates. The part of the axon still attached to the cell
body gives rise to a growth cone, which grows out to the
effector organ so that function can be restored.
• Return of function following a peripheral nerve injury is
delayed because axon regrowth proceeds at a rate of only
about 1 millimeter per day.

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Regeneration of Axons (2/2)

• Spinal injuries typically crush rather than

cut the tissue, leaving the axons intact.

• In this case, a primary problem is

apoptosis of the nearby
oligodendrocytes. This results in loss of
the myelin sheath, and the axons cannot
transmit information effectively.

• Severed axons within the CNS may grow small new

extensions, but no significant regeneration of the axon
occurs across the damaged site, and there are no well-
documented reports of significant return of function.

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New Attempts to Repair Nervous System Damage

• Researchers are trying a variety of ways to provide an

environment that will support axonal regeneration in the
CNS.
• They are creating tubes to support regrowth of the
severed axons, redirecting the axons to regions of the
spinal cord that lack growth-inhibiting factors, preventing
apoptosis of the oligodendrocytes so myelin can be
maintained, and supplying neurotrophic factors that
support recovery of the damaged tissue.
• Other attempts to restore CNS function include
implanting undifferentiated stem cells that will develop
into new neurons and replace missing neurotransmitter or
neurotrophic factors.
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Any questions?

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