Engineering Physics

Course Code:22PH1005

Dr.G Sunita Sundari

Associate Professor

Department of Physics
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation 1
 Syllabus
• Crystal Physics: Space lattice, basis, unit cell, Seven Crystal systems, Bravais
lattice system, Crystal directions – Planes and Miller indices – Crystal parameters
(for SC, BCC and FCC), Diffraction of X-rays by crystal planes – powder
photograph method – Imperfections in crystals.
• Mechanical properties of solids: Stress- strain relationship – Hooke’s law, Stress-
strain diagram for various engineering materials – Ductile and brittle materials –
Mechanical properties of Engineering materials (Tensile strength, Hardness,
Fatigue, Impact strength, Creep) – Fracture.
• Quantum mechanics: Inadequacies of Classical Mechanics – Duality nature of
electromagnetic radiation – De Broglie hypothesis for matter waves – Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle – Schrödinger’s wave equation – Particle confinement in 1D
box (Infinite Square well potential).
• Lasers and Fiber Optics: Characteristics of Lasers – Lasing action – Working
principle and components of Ruby, He-Ne laser, Applications. Fiber Optics:
Principle of Optical fiber – Acceptance angle and acceptance cone – Numerical
aperture –Types of optical fibers (Material, Refractive index and mode) – Fiber
optic communication – Fiber optic
07/26/2025 06:05 AM Dr.sensors.
Mahamuda Shaik 2
Text Books :
1. Callister William D., Material Science and Engineering - An
Intoduction,. 6th edition, 2007, Wiley India Pvt.Ltd, ISBN-13:
978-0470556733.
2. Arthur Beiser, Perspectives of Modern Physics - McGraw- Hill,
1968- Science. ISBN 0-07-115096-X.
3. Thyagarajan. K., Ajoy Ghatak, Lasers: Fundamentals and
Applications, 2nd edition, ISBN -13-9781441964410.
Reference Books :
1. Kittel. C, Solid State Physics, Wiley student 8th edition, ISBN:
978-0-471-41526-8.
2. 2. Irving h. Shames, Cozzarelli. Francis A., Taylor & Francis
group, Elastic and Inelastic Stress Analysis, ISBN10:
0132454653.
3. 3. Dekkar. A.J, Solid State Physics, Macmillan publishers, ISBN :
0333918339

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 Chapter 1
Crystallography

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4
 Session
1

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 Classification of matter

Matter

LIQUID SOLID
GASES
S S
Amorphou Qusicrysta
Crystals
s ls

Polycrysta Single
ls Crystals
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 Crystalline Amorphous
Solids
• Regular arrangement Solids
• No regular arrangement
of atoms along the 3 of atoms.
D. • Have short range order.
• Have long range order. • No sharp melting point.
• Sharp melting point. • No fixed heat of fusion.
• High and fixed heat of
fusion. • They are isotropic.
• They are anisotropic. • They don’t show all
• They show all characteristics of solids.
characteristic of • They give irregular cut.
solids.
• They have regular cut.

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 Two dimensional representation of Single, poly
crystalline and amorphous materials
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 Basic
Definitions a
Linear
Lattice

Lattice Plane
Lattice
•An infinite array of points
•Each point will have
Space
Identical surrounding.
Lattice
y
b
Translation vector
B

   b
OB 2 a  b O
 x
a
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2a 9
Basis
An atom or group of atoms (or ions) which when
attached to every lattice points produces the crystal
structure.
Basis

Lattice + Basis = Crystal

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structure 10
Unit Cell:
Small geometrical figure in space lattice whose
repetition in all directions gives actual crystal structure

•Smallest repeatable unit in a point

Lattice.
•Choice of unit cell is not unique
There are two distinct types of unit cell:
•Primitive unit cell
•Non-primitive unit cell

07/26/2025 11
 UNIT CELL

Primitive Non-primitive

•More than one lattice point

•Single lattice point per cell
per cell
•Smallest area in 2D, or
•Integral multibles of the are
•Smallest volume in 3D
of primitive cell

Simple cubic(sc) Body centered cubic(bcc)

Conventional = Primitive cell Conventional ≠ Primitive cell
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 Crystallographic
axes
Axes resulted by the intersection of the three non-
coplanar
faces of the unit cell.
The angles between these faces or crystallographic axes
are known as interfacial or inter-axial angles.
Lattice
parameters
The translational vectors (or primitives) a, b, c of a unit
cell
along X, Y, Z axes and inter-axial angles α, β, γ

 : Angle between the axes Y and

Z

 : Angle between the axes Z and

X
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 : Angle between the axes X and
 Crystal systems
1. Cubic Crystal
System

07/26/2025 a=b= === 14

2.Tetragonal system

a=b ===
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c 90° 15
. Orthorhombic system

ab ===
c 90°
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4. Monoclinic system

abc  =  = 90°,  
07/26/2025 90° 17
5. Triclinic system

a
b

abc 
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90° 18
6. Rhombohedral (Trigonal) system

a=b= ==
c 90°
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7. Hexagonal system

a=b a=  = 90°,  =
c 120°
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 Summary of crystal
systems

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07/26/2025 Click here Crystal systems 22
 Session
2

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Bravais Lattice
An infinite array of discrete points generated by a set of
discrete
translation operations
R ndescribed by
1a1  n2 a2  n3 a3

where ni are integers and ai are primitive vectors

14 Bravais lattices are possible in 3-dimentional space.
These are obtained by combination of lattice system
with lattice
types
Lattice system (crystal system): gives the information
regarding
the lattice parameters
Lattice types: Gives the information about lattice points
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present
 Lattice types

Primitiv Body Face Base

e centered centered centered
(P) (I) (F) (C)

1  1 1 1 1 1
n 8  1 n  8    1 2 n  8     6   4 n  8     2   2
8  8  8  2  8  2

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Lattice types (animation)
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07/26/2025 27
07/26/2025 28
 14 Bravais
lattices
Body Face Base
Crystal Primitive
centere centere centere
system (P)
d (I) d (F) d (C)

Cubic    
Tetragonal    
Orthorhombic    
Monoclinic    
Triclinic    
Rhombohedral    
Hexagonal    
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Click here for animation for 14 Bravais lattice
 Atomic Packing Factor or Packing
ItFraction
is the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit
cell to the
total volume of the unit cell. Volume of packed ions
Packing fraction (%) =
Volume of primitive unitcell
Volume of packed ions
= ×Z
Volume of unitcell
4 3
r
= 3 3 Z
a
where, r = radius of atoms
a = unit cell edge
Z = no. of lattice points per unit cell
Now, we are going to apply this for three crystal
structures
having cubic symmetry
•Simple cubic
•Body centered cubic
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07/26/2025 31
 Relation between atomic radius and edge
length

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 Simple Body centered Face centered
cubic cubic cubic

r a / 2 Z= r  3a / 4 Z= r a / 2 2 Z=
4 13 4
r 3 2 4
r 34
r
PF = 3 Z PF = 3 3 Z PF = 3 3 Z
a 3 a a

PF = PF = PF =
52%
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68% 74% 33
 Miller Indices
A notation of planes in Bravais lattices
Miller Indices are the reciprocals of the fractional
intercepts
(with fractions cleared) which the plane makes with the
crystallographic x, y, z axes of the three nonparallel edges
of the
cubic unit cell.
The orientation of planes or faces in a crystal can be
described
in terms of their intercepts on the three axes.
 Miller introduced a system to designate a plane in a
crystal.
He introduced a set of three numbers to specify a plane
in07/26/2025
a 34
 Different lattice planes in a crystal

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 Procedure for finding Miller
Indices
Determine the coordinates of the intercepts made by
the plane
along the three crystallographic axis.
Express the intercepts as multiples of unit cell
dimensions or
lattice parameters along the axes.
Determine the reciprocals of these number.
Reduce these reciprocals into the smallest whole
numbers by
multiplying each with their L.C.M to get the smallest whole
number.
Enclose the smallest whole numbers in ( )
This give the Miller indices (h k l) of the plane.
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 Crystal planes

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 Important features of Miller
indices

If a plane is parallel to any of the coordinate axis, then

its
intercepts will be infinity.
All the parallel equidistant planes have the same Miller
Indices.
Miller Indices define a set of equidistant parallel planes.
If the Miller Indices of two planes have the same ratio
then the
planes are parallel to each other.
If (hkl) are the Miller Indices of a plane, then the plane
cuts the
07/26/2025 38
axis into h, k and l equal parts.
 SUMMARY OF MEANINGS OF PARENTHESES

(q,r,s) represents a point – note the exclusive use

of commas

[hkl] represents a direction

<hkl> represents a family of directions

(hkl) represents a plane

{hkl} represents a family of planes

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 Crystal planes

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 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1 1  c
2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/
1 1 0
3. Reduction 1 1 0 y
a b
4. Miller Indices (110)
x
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2   c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/ 1/
2 0 0
3. Reduction 2 0 0
y
4. Miller Indices (100) a b
x
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 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c c
1. Intercepts 1/2 1 3/4 
2. 1/½ 1/1 1/¾
Reciprocals 2 1 4/3  y

3. Reduction 6 3 4 a b

4. Miller Indices x
(634)

Family of Planes
{hkl}
Ex: {100} = (100),(010),(001),(100),(010),(001)
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 Inter-planar spacing in
Crystals
The inter-planar spacing between any crystallographic
planes
belonging to the same (h,k,l) family is denoted by (dhkl).
Distances between planes defined by the same set of
Miller
indices are unique for each material.

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 Inter-planar spacing in different crystal
systems

Inter-planar spacing in other crystal system is more

complex
in nature
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 Session
3

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 Q3: Determine the miller indices for the planes shown
in
the following unit cell

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Q4: What are Miller Indices? Draw (111) and (110) planes in
a cubic lattice.

Q5: Sketch the following planes of a cubic unit cell (001),

(120), (211)

Q6: Obtain the Miller indices of a plane which intercepts at a,

b/2 and 3c in simple cubic unit cell. Draw a neat diagram
showing the plane

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 Diffraction through
Crystals
Diffraction:
The light rays when pass through a sharp edge of an object can
form some bright regions inside the geometrical shadow of the
object.
This is due to the bending nature of light called diffraction.
Main criteria for diffraction:
The thickness of obstacle or slit is of the order of incident light
wavelength.
Diffraction in Crystals:
In the year 1912, a German physicist Laue suggested that the
three-
dimensional arrangement of atoms in a crystal can produce
diffraction.
(But with which radiation)
X-ray diffraction in Crystals:
48
The wavelength of X-rays is of the order of an angstrom which is in
07/26/2025
 Importance of X-
rays

07/26/2025 49
 Production of X-Rays

• A typical X-ray tube.

• X-rays are produced whenever high-
speed electrons collide with a metal
target.
• A source of electrons – hot W
filament, a high accelerating voltage
between the cathode (W) and the
anode
07/26/2025 • metal target, Cu, Al, Mo, Mg works
50
as anode.
 Bragg’s Law in one dimension

n = 2dsin
English physicists Sir W.H. Bragg and his son Sir W.L.
Bragg
developed a relationship in 1913 to explain why the
cleavage
faces of crystals appear to reflect X-ray beams at certain
angles of incidence (theta, ).

The variable d is the distance between atomic layers

in a
crystal, and the variable lambda  is the wavelength of
the
incident X-ray beam; n is an integer.

This observation is an example of X-ray wave

interference,
07/26/2025
 Deriving Bragg’s Law: n = 2dsin

Constructive interference
occurs only when
n  = AB + BC
AB=BC
n = 2AB
Sin = AB/d
AB = dsin
n =2dsin
 = 2dhkl sinhkl

07/26/2025
07/26/2025
 Session
4

07/26/2025 54
 Problem on Bragg’s law
1. A beam of X-rays of wavelength 0.071 nm is diffracted by (110) plane of
rock salt with lattice constant of 0.28 nm. Find the glancing angle for the
second-order diffraction.
2. A beam of X-rays is incident on a NaCl crystal with lattice plane spacing
0.282 nm. Calculate the wavelength of X-rays if the first-order Bragg
reflection takes place at a glancing angle of 8 °35′. Also calculate the
maximum order of diffraction possible.
3. Monochromatic X-rays of λ = 1.5 A.U are incident on a crystal face having
an inter-planar spacing of 1.6 A.U. Find the highest order for which Bragg’s
reflection maximum can be seen.
4. For BCC iron, compute (a) the inter-planar spacing, and (b) the diffraction
angle for the (220) set of planes. The lattice parameter for Fe is 0.2866
nm. Also, assume that monochromatic radiation having a wavelength of
0.1790 nm is used, and the order of reflection is 1.
5. The metal niobium has a BCC crystal structure. If the angle of diffraction
for the (211) set of planes occurs at 75.99o (first order reflection) when
monochromatic X-radiation having a wavelength 0.1659 nm is used.
Compute (a) the inter-planar spacing for this set of planes and (b) the
atomic radius for the niobium atom. 55
07/26/2025
 X-ray diffraction Methods

Laue Method Powder Method

• Polychromatic Beam • Monochromatic Beam

• Diffraction angle is fixed • Variable diffraction angle
• Single Crystals • Polycrystals (powder)

Rotating Crystal method

• Monochromatic Beam
• Variable diffraction angle
• Single Crystal
07/26/2025 56
 Laue Method
First diffraction method ever used for structural studies.
It was demonstrated by von Laue.
We can use this method for identification any orientation
present
in single crystals.
Quality of the single crystals can also be checked with
this
method.
In this method, single crystal is fixed at a particular
position.
(Diffraction angle is fixed)
Continuous spectrum of radiation from X-ray tube will be
used in this method. (polychromatic beam)
Each set of planes diffract out particular wavelength
which
57
satisfy
07/26/2025 Bragg’s law for a given value of d and .
Transmission method
D
F
Collimator Single crystal 2

r1
X-rays
B S r1
tan 2 
D
Back-reflection method D
F
(180 -2 )
Single crystal Collimator

r2
X-rays
r2 B S
tan(180  2 ) 
07/26/2025 D 58
 Back-
Transmissio
reflection
n method
method

Positions of spots on the film depends on the

orientation of
single crystal relative to incident beam.
Spots are distorted or smeared out if the crystal is bent
or
twisted.
With these two, we can analyze the quality and
07/26/2025 59
 Rotating Crystal Method
A single crystal is used in this method.
It is mounted with one of its axis normal to a
monochromatic
X-ray beam.
A cylindrical film is placed around it & the crystal is
rotated
about the chosen axis.
As the crystal rotates, sets of lattice planes will at
some point
make the correct Bragg angle for the monochromatic
incident
beam, and at that point a diffracted beam will be formed.
The reflected beams are located on the surfaces of imaginary
cones.
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 Experimental setup of
Rotation Crystal
method

Single crystal

s Cylindrical film
y
-ra
X

Axis of Crystal
07/26/2025 61
 Powder Method
Very fine powder sample (crystal) is used instead of a single
crystal.
This powder sample is an assembly of tiny crystals oriented in
random direction with respect to incident beam (monochromatic
X-rays).
Diffraction will come from all set of planes present in the powder
samples.
Debye-Scherrer Camera
A small amount of powdered material is sealed into
a fine
capillary tube made from glass that does not diffract X-
Rays.
The sample is placed in the Debye Scherrer camera
and is
accurately aligned to be in the center of the camera. X-
Rays
enter the camera through a collimator.
The powder diffracts the X-Rays in accordance with
Braggs Law
to produce cones of diffracted beams.
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 These cones intersect a strip of photographic film
located in
the cylindrical camera to produce a characteristic set of
arcs
on the film.
When the film is removed from the camera, flattened
and
processed, it shows the diffraction lines and the holes for
the
incident and transmitted beams.

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 For a sample of several randomly orientated single
crystals, the
diffracted beams will lie on the surface of several cones.
The
cones may emerge in all directions, forwards and
backwards.
In case of powdered sample, the diffracted beams form
continuous cones. A circular film is used to record the
diffraction
pattern. Each cone intersects the film giving diffraction
lines.
These lines are seen as arcs on the film.

07/26/2025 64
 Applications of XRD
Determination of Lattice parameter

 S1  S 
   1 2 
2W 2 W 
By knowing the h, k, l values one can easily calculate lattice
parameter of cubic crystal using the equation

2
2  
sin 2   h 2
 k 2
 l 2

4a
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07/26/2025 66
07/26/2025 67
 X-Ray Diffraction technique is used to
Distinguishing between crystalline & amorphous
materials.
Determination of the structure of crystalline
materials.
Determination of electron distribution within the
atoms, &
throughout the unit cell.
Determination of the orientation of single crystals.
Determination of the texture of polygrained
materials.
Measurement of strain and small grain size…..etc.
07/26/2025 Confidential 68
 Advantages & Disadvantages of
X-Ray Diffraction

Advantages
 XRD is a nondestructive technique
 X-Rays are the least expensive, the most convenient &
the most widely used method to determine crystal
structures.
 X-Rays are not absorbed very much by air, so the
sample need not be in an evacuated chamber.

Disadvantages
 X-Rays do not interact very strongly with lighter elements.

07/26/2025 Confidential 69
 Problems
1. Chromium has BCC structure. Its atomic radius is 0.1249 nm
. Calculate the free volume / unit cell.
2. Lithium crystallizes in BCC structure. Calculate the lattice
constant, given that the atomic weight and density for
lithium are 6.94 and 530 kg/m3 respectively.
3. Iron crystallizes in BCC structure. Calculate the lattice
constant, given that the atomic weight and density of iron
are 55.85 and 7860 kg/m3 respectively.
4. If the edge of the unit cell of a cube in the diamond
structure is 0.356 nm, calculate the number of atoms/m3.
5. A metal in BCC structure has a lattice constant 3.5Ao.
Calculate the number of atoms per sq. mm area in the (200)
plane.
6. Germanium crystallizes in diamond (from) structures with 8
atoms per unit cell. If the lattice constant is 5.62 Ao,
calculate
07/26/2025
its density. Confidential 70
5. A beam of X-rays of wavelength 0.071 nm is diffracted by
(100) plane of rock salt with lattice constant of 0.28nm. Find
the glancing angle for the second – order diffraction.
6. A beam of X-rays is incident on a NaCl crystal with lattice
plane spacing 0.282 nm. Calculate the wavelength of X-rays
if the first-order Bragg reflection takes place at a glancing
angle of 8o 35’. Also calculate the maximum order of
diffraction possible.
7. The fraction of vacant sites in a metal is 1 X 10-10 at 500oC.
What will be the fraction of vacancy sites at 1000o C?
8. Calculate the ratios of d100 : d110 : d111 for a simple cubic
structure
9. The Bragg’s angle in the first order for (220) reflection from
nickel (FCC) is 38.2o. When X-rays of wavelength 1.54 Ao are
employed in a diffraction experiment. Determine the lattice
parameter of nickel.
10.Monochromatic
07/26/2025 X-rays of  = 1.5 A.U are incident
Confidentialon a 71
11. The distance between (100) planes in a BCC structure is
0.203 nm. What is the size of the unit cell? What is the
radius of the atom?
12. Monochromatic X-rays of  = 1.5 A.U are incident on a
crystal face having an inter-planar spacing of 1.6 A.U. Find
the highest order for which Bragg’s reflection maximum
can be seen.
13. Copper has FCC structure with lattice constant 0.36nm.
Calculate the inter-planar spacing for (111) and (321)
planes.
14. The first order diffraction occurs when a X-ray beam of
wavelength 0.675 Ao incident at a glancing angle 5o 25’ on
a crystal. What is the glancing angle for third-order
diffraction to occur?
15. The Bragg’s angle in the first order for (220) reflection from
nickel ( FCC) is 38.2o . When X-rays of wavelength 1.54 Ao
are employed in a diffraction experiment. Determine
07/26/2025 Confidential the72