PSYCHROMETRY

PSYCHROMETRY
Psychrometry is the science dealing with the physical laws of air
water vapour mixtures.

When designing an air conditioning system, the temperature

and moisture content of the air to be conditioned to produce
the desired air conditioning effect.

In other words, Psychrometry is the study of MOIST AIR or

mixture of dry air and water vapour.
 PSYCHROMETRY – air vrs water vapour
Air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, but the atmosphere
around us is humid air, it contains varying amounts of water
vapour.

At any given temperature the air can only support a limited

amount of water vapour, when it is said to be saturated
 PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
• DEW POINT TEMPERATURE
• RELATIVE HUMIDITY
• HUMIDITY RATIO
• DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE
• WET BULB TEMPERATURE
• PSYCHROMETRIC RATIO
• SPECIFIC VOLUME
• ENTHALPY
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE (DP)
The temperature to which air must be cooled before condensation of
its moisture will begin.

As a sample of air is cooled, its RH climbs until it reaches 100% RH

(saturated air). This is the dew point temperature.

At saturation, dew point temperature equals wet bulb temperature

equals dry bulb temperature, and the RH is 100%.

If air is passed over a surface that is below the dew point temperature,
moisture from the air will condense on the surface.
 PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE (DP)
• The temperature at which moisture starts to condense out of the air
is known as DEW POINT.

• Dew point is also known as saturation temperature of

water corresponding to the vapor pressure.

• Condensation occurs at the Dew Point Temperature

PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE (DP)
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)
The ratio of the amount of water vapor in a given sample of air to the
maximum amount of water vapor the same air can hold.

100% RH indicates saturated air (the air cannot hold any more water
vapor), and 0% RH indicates perfectly dry air.

(Note: The above definition is accurate for all practical purposes. The
correct definition of relative humidity is the ratio of actual water
vapor pressure in a sample of air, to the water vapor pressure in
saturated air at the same temperature.)
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)
The 100% RH line is the saturation line and lines of lesser RH fall
below and to the right of this line.
 PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
HUMIDITY RATIO (W)
Sometimes referred to as “Specific humidity”, this is the actual weight of
water vapor in a kg of dry air.

Humidity ratio is expressed in kg (or grains) of water vapor per kg of dry

air.

Humidity ratio lines are horizontal on the chart and originate from the
vertical axis on the right hand side.
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
HUMIDITY RATIO (W)
Specific Humidity:
Specific humidity is defined as the proportion of the mass of water
vapour per unit mass of the moist air sample (dry air plus the water
vapour); it is closely related to humidity ratio and always lower in value.

Absolute Humidity:
The mass of water vapor per unit volume of air containing the water
vapor. This quantity is also known as the water vapour density.
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
HUMIDITY RATIO (W)
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DB)
The temperature of a substance as read by a common thermometer.

The dry bulb temperature is an indication of the sensible heat content

of the substance.

Dry bulb temperatures are shown as vertical lines originating from the
horizontal axis on the bottom of the chart.
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE (DB)
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (WB)

The wet bulb temperature is used to measure the water content of

moist air.

It is obtained by passing air over a thermometer that has a wet wick

over its sensing bulb.

The drier the air, the more water will evaporate from the wick which
lowers the reading on the thermometer.
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (WB)
If the air is saturated (100% relative humidity), no water will evaporate
from the wick and the wet bulb temperature will equal the dry bulb
temperature.

Wet bulb lines originate from where the dry bulb lines intersect the
saturation line and slope downward and to the right.

Wet bulb lines are nearly but not exactly parallel to enthalpy lines.
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
WET BULB TEMPERATURE (WB)
WHIRLING SLING HYGROMETER
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
ENTHALPY (H)
This term is used to describe the total heat of a substance and is
expressed in KJ per kg of dry air.

For moist air, enthalpy indicates the total heat in the air and water
vapor mixture and is shown as KJ per kg of dry air.

Enthalpy values are found on a scale above and to the left of the
saturation line. Lines of constant enthalpy slope downward and to the
right and nearly parallel the wet bulb lines.
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
ENTHALPY (H)
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
SPECIFIC VOLUME (SpV)
The reciprocal of density, specific volume is expressed as cubic meter of
air-water vapor mixture per kg of dry air.

Lines of specific volume start on the horizontal axis and slope upwards
and to the left.
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
SPECIFIC VOLUME (SpV)
PROPERTIES OF PSYCHROMETRY
REPRESENTATION ON THE PSYCHOMETRIC CHART
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Phsychrometric chart looks complicated but they basically illustrate a
very simple 2-dimensional representation of the air.

Present moist air properties in a convenient form.

They are used extensively in AC applications.

The psychrometric chart serves as a valuable aid in visualizing the AC

processes such as heating, cooling, and humidification.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
To predict whether or not moisture condensation will occur on a given
surface you need three pieces of information; the temperature of the
air, the relative humidity of the air, and the surface temperature.

The psychrometric chart explains that by raising the surface

temperature or by lowering the moisture content of the air or employ
some combination of both can avoid surface condensation.

A rule of thumb is that, a 10°F rise in air temperature can decrease

relative humidity 20 percent. Use of a psychrometric chart will show
that this is true.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
A psychrometric chart also helps in calculating and analyzing the
work and energy transfer of various air-conditioning processes.

In practical applications, the most common psychrometric analysis

made by HVAC contractors involves measuring the dry and wet bulb
temperatures of air entering and leaving a cooling coil.

If these temperatures are known along with the volumetric air flow
rate (CFM or cu ft/min ) through the coil, the cooling capacity of a
unit can be verified.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

For saturated air, the dry-bulb, wet-bulb,

Schematic for a psychrometric chart.
and dew-point temperatures are identical.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
An air-conditioned room at sea level has an indoor
design temperature of 24°C (75°F) and a relative
humidity of 50%. Determine the humidity ratio,
enthalpy, density, dew point, and thermodynamic wet
bulb temperature of the indoor air at design condition.

Solution
Since the air-conditioned room is at sea level, a
psychrometric chart of standard atmospheric
pressure of 14.697psi should be used to find the
required properties.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
• SENSIBLE HEATING
• SENSIBLE COOLING
• DEHUMIDIFICATION
• HUMIDFIYING
• ADIABATIC COOLING
• ADIABATIC MIXING
(MOIST AIR & WATER VAPOR)
 PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
SENSIBLE HEATING
Sensible Heating : it is addition of heat to moist air without the addition
of moisture. It follows a constant humidity ratio line on the
psychrometric chart.
.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
SENSIBLE COOLING
Sensible Cooling: It is the removal of heat from moist air without the
removal of moisture. It also follows a constant W on the psychrometric
chart.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
SENSIBLE COOLING AND HEATING
Heating & Cooling process – addition or removal of sensible heat
without change in absolute moisture content.
NOTE: RH changes as temperature changes.

Any sensible heating or cooling process is shown

as a horizontal line on the chart. The humidity
ratio and the dew point are constant in this process.

Any latent heating or cooling process is shown as a

vertical line. The dry bulb temperature is constant
in this process.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING
It is the removal of heat and moisture from moist air, it involves
sensible and latent heat transfer.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING
A typical cooling/dehumidifying process is represented as a line that
goes down and to the left.

The actual process is more accurately portrayed by a curved line

moving down and to the left.

This is due to the mixing process of some parts of the air stream that
have reached the dew point with other parts that are still being
sensibly cooled.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
DEHUMIDIFICATION
Dehumidification by Cooling – in cooling coils temperature of air
reduces and the saturation point (dew point) is reached.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
DEHUMIDIFICATION BY COOLING
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
HEATING AND HUMIDIFYING
It is the addition of heat and moisture from moist air, it involves
sensible and latent heat transfer.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
HUMIDIFYING
It is the addition of moisture to moist air without the addition of heat.
REMOVING AND ADDITION OF SENSIBLE HEAT
AND MOISTURE
REMOVING AND ADDITION OF SENSIBLE HEAT
AND MOISTURE
ADIABATIC OR EVAPORATIVE COOLING
A psychrometric process that involves the cooling of air without heat
loss or gain. Sensible heat lost by the air is converted to latent heat in
the added water vapour
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
ADIABATIC MIXING OF MOIST AIR STREAM
A psychrometric process that involves no net heat loss or gain during
the mixing of two air streams.

This is particularly true for large buildings, most production and process
plants, and hospitals, which require that the conditioned air be mixed
with a certain fraction of fresh outside air before it is routed into the
living space.
HUMAN COMFORT AND AIR CONDITON
Today, modern air-conditioning systems can heat, cool, humidify,
dehumidify, clean, and even condition the air to peoples’ desires.

The rate of heat generation by human body depends on the level of the
activity. For an average adult male, it is about 87 W when sleeping, 115
W when resting or doing office work, and 440 W when doing heavy
physical work.

When doing light work or walking slowly, about half of the rejected
body heat is dissipated through perspiration as latent heat while the
other half is dissipated through convection and radiation as sensible
heat.
HUMAN COMFORT AND AIR CONDITON
We cannot change the weather, but we can change the climate in a
confined space by air conditioning.

The comfort of the human body depends primarily on three factors: the
(dry-bulb) temperature, relative humidity, and air motion.

The relative humidity affects the amount of heat a body can dissipate
through evaporation.

Most people prefer a relative humidity of 40 to 60%.

HUMAN COMFORT AND AIR CONDITON
Air motion removes the warm, moist air that builds up around the body
and replaces it with fresh air. Air motion should be strong enough to
remove heat and moisture from the vicinity of the body, but gentle
enough to be unnoticed.

An important factor that affects human comfort is heat transfer by

radiation between the body and the surrounding
surfaces such as walls and windows.

Other factors that affect comfort are air cleanliness, odor, and noise.
 HEATING,
VENTILATING, AND
AIR CONDITIONING
(HVAC)
NG, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC)
Generally, where passive controls cannot fully ensure thermal
comfort, some energy-based mechanical system can be used to
supplement their performance.

This may be heating, ventilation or air conditioning (HVAC).

The task of such a system is usually referred to as the ‘load’

(heating load, air conditioning load).

From the mechanical engineering viewpoint the task of the building

design (i.e. of the passive controls) is to reduce such a load as far as
practicable.
HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC):
TYPICAL DESIGN PROCESSES

Factors to consider at the preliminary design stage

The most general combinations of comfort needs and climate characteristics are
considered:
• Activity comfort needs are listed.
• An activity schedule is developed.
• Site energy resources are analyzed.
• Climate design strategies are listed.
• Building form alternatives are considered.
• Combinations of passive and active systems are considered.
• One or several alternatives are sized by general design guidelines.
 HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC):
TYPICAL DESIGN PROCESSES
Factors to consider at the design
development stage
1. Establish design conditions.
• By activity, lists the range of acceptable air and surface temperatures, air motions, relative
humidities, lighting levels, and background noise levels.
• Establishes the schedule of operations.

2. Determine the HVAC zones, considering:

• Activities.
• Schedule.
• Orientation.
• Internal heat gains.

3. Estimate the thermal loads on each zone:

• For worst winter conditions.
• For worst summer conditions.
• For the average condition or conditions that represent the great majority of the building’s operating hours.
• Frequently, an estimate of annual energy consumption is made.
 CONIDERATIONS FOR HEATING,
VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING
(HVAC):
4. Selects the HVAC systems. Often, several systems will be used within one large building because orientation, activity, or
scheduling differences may dictate different mechanical solutions. Especially common system for the all-interior zones
of large buildings and another system for the perimeter zones.

5. Identifies the HVAC components and their locations.

• Mechanical rooms.
• Distribution trees—vertical chases, horizontal runs.
• Typical in-space components, such as under-window.

6. Sizes the components

7. Lays out the system. At this stage, conflicts with other systems (structure, plumbing, fire safety, circulation, etc.) are most
likely to become evident. Because insufficient vertical clearance is one of the most common building coordination
problems with HVAC systems, the layouts must include sections as well as plans. Opportunities for integration with other
systems also become more apparent at this stage: air ducts can also help distribute daylighting, act as sun shading
devices, or fulfill other functions.
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Central or Local
Central
This is dependent on the heating and cooling capacity and equipment (sizing).
Require one or several large mechanical spaces (often in basements and/or on
roofs), sizable distribution trees, and complex control systems.
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Central
Advantages
• The noise, heat, and other characteristics of such mechanical rooms can be
controlled fairly easily, because the machinery is concentrated at a few
locations.

• The equipment is contained within its own space rather than taking up space
within each room, and maintenance can be carried out without disrupting
activities within those rooms.

• Air quality can be controlled by locating the air intakes high above the
pollution at street level and by regular maintenance of the centralized air-
filtering equipment.

• Longer equipment life can be expected with regular maintenance.

EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Central
Disadvantages
One important drawback of central systems is the size and length of the
distribution trees necessary to carry centralized services to many local receivers.

Another drawback is a difference in zone scheduling: when the entire system

must be activated to serve one zone (such as computer operations in an office
building on a weekend), energy is wasted.
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Local
Advantage
• Ability to respond quickly to individual rooms’ needs.
• Local systems therefore become increasingly attractive as scheduling differences
multiply.
• Pronounced differences in other factors function (with resulting comfort
expectations) or placement within the building, for example—can lead to the
choice of local systems.
• Large and centralized equipment spaces are not required with local systems;
rather, production equipment is distributed throughout the building (or over the
roofs of low-rise structures).
• Dispersal of equipment minimizes the size of distribution trees and greatly
simplifies control systems.
• System breakdowns affect only small portions of the building.
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Local
Disadvantage
However, noise and other by-products of multiple machines pose numerous
potential threats to occupied spaces.

Maintenance is demanding, because access to so many separate locations is

often disruptive or constricted.
.
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Central heat/cool, local air distribution
This has become a popular way to take advantage of the favorable characteristics
of both central and local approaches. With a central boiler/chiller space remotely
located and fan rooms on each floor.

This minimizes the bulky distribution tree for air; although the distribution tree
for heated and chilled water is extensive, it is also of much smaller diameter and
therefore is relatively easily accommodated.
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Central heat/cool, local air distribution
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Central heat/cool, local air distribution
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution Trees
Central heating/cooling systems produce heating and cooling in one place, then
distribute these effects to other building spaces according to their respective
needs.
• The distribution tree is the means for delivering heating and cooling:
• The “roots” are the machines that provide heat and cold,

• The “trunk” is the main duct or pipe from the mechanical equipment to the
zone to be served, and

• The “branches” are the many smaller ducts or pipes that lead to individual
spaces.
EQUIPMENT LOCATION AND SERVICE
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution Trees
At one extreme, a large mechanical room is the scene of all heating and cooling
production; leading from this room is a very large trunk duct with perhaps
hundreds of branches. At the other extreme, each zone has its own mechanical
equipment (such as a rooftop heat pump), with short trunks and relatively few
branches on each tree.
 PLACEMENT OPTIONS
Vertical placement options are important because they affect
floor space, influencing the flexibility of spatial layout and the
availability of usable
(or rentable) floor space.

Horizontal placement options affect ceiling height—a particular

issue in daylighting design and sometimes a critical factor when
overall height limits are imposed yet maximum usable floor
space is desired.
PLACEMENT OPTIONS
LOCAL HEATING
In some instances heat can be generated in the space where it is
needed. This is referred to as ‘local heating’.
Oil heaters are available in small portable form. These use the
room air and discharge their combustion products into the room.

Solid fuel appliances (or stoves) may be industrial products

made of metal or may be built in situ of ceramic blocks. Both are
connected to a flue. Such flues can remove a significant quantity
of air and will operate well only if the room air can be
replenished through appropriate vents. Open fireplaces are often
used as decorative elements but cannot be considered as
serious heating devices because of their very low efficiency.
LOCAL HEATING
Gas heaters may have a ‘balanced flue where fresh air supply
and the discharge of combustion products is a circuit separated
from the room air.
Electric heaters have the greatest variety in terms of heat
output(radiant/convective) and form, although all of them are
based on resistance heater elements.
HEATING
A special form of electric heating is based on
the heat pump
A heat pump is like a conventional air conditioner except it
also can provide heat in the winter. In the summer, the heat
pump collects heat from the house and expels it outside. In
the winter, the heat pump extracts heat from the outside air
and circulates it inside the house.
A special form of electric heating is based on
the heat pump
A working fluid or refrigerant (such as an organic fluoride or a
hydrocarbon) is circulated in a closed loop by the compressor.

A pressure release valve (choke) keeps the condenser side under

high pressure and the evaporator side under low pressure and low
temperature.

When the fluid is compressed, it becomes hot and liquefies, whilst

it will
emit heat to the sink, in this case the room air.

Passing through the choke it evaporates and its temperature drops

so
that it can pick up heat from a source.
A special form of electric heating is based on
the heat pump
ENTRAL HEATING
Heat may be produced centrally in a building (or group of
buildings), distributed to the occupied spaces by a heat
transport fluid and emitted to provide the required heating.
Schematically:

The emitter for a warm air system may be a grille or a

diffuser (on rare occasions a directional jet).
VENTILATION
Mechanical ventilation systems may be of three
types:
• extract
• supply
• balanced
Extract systems
. are useful near a source of contamination, such as toilets,
kitchen cooker hoods and laboratory fume cupboards. These create a
negative pressure relief.

Supply systems bring in filtered outside air and create a positive pressure.
Air must be released through vents.

Balanced systems have both supply and exhaust provided by mechanical

means. These can provide a great degree of control, but are expensive.
The supply flow is usually kept higher than the exhaust, to keep a slight
positive pressure and thus prevent unwanted dust entry.
VENTILATION
Fans are used to drive the air. Two main types can be
distinguished:
Propeller or axial flow fans; very effective when working
against small back-pressure (flow resistance). The latter term
is used when fitted inside a cylindrical casing.

Centrifugal (or radial flow) fans: the intake is axial, the output
is tangential. The impellers may have straight radial blades,
forward or backward curved or aero foil shaped blades. These
can be optimized for the particular installation, with emphasis
VENTILATION
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF
VENTILATION SYSTEM
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF
VENTILATION SYSTEM
AIR CONDITIONING

Air conditioning systems control the temperature and

humidity as well as the purity of the air.

An air conditioning system

generally consists of five
mechanical components:
1.Compressor
2.Fan
3.Condenser Coil (Hot)
4.Evaporator Coil (Cool)
5.Chemical Refrigerant
IR CONDITIONING
Compressor
The purpose of the compressor is to re-pressurize the refrigerant gas in order to turn it back into liquid. So the
compressor assists the condenser, while the expansion valve assists the evaporator

Condenser Coil (Hot)

The condenser works the opposite of the evaporator and converts the evaporated refrigerant back into a liquid
through a process known as “heat transfer”—the principle that heat will always move from a warmer to a cooler
substance.

Evaporator Coil (Cool)

The evaporator is located on the cold side of the air conditioner and is paired with a fan that
blows air over the chilled coils and into the home.

Chemical Refrigerant
Refrigerant is the generic name for the chemical blend that cycles through an air conditioner, changing from a
liquid to a gas as it absorbs and releases heat.

Fan
 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AIR CONDITION
INSTALLATION
Schematic diagram of a packaged air-conditioner unit.
The simplest system isthe room
conditioner: a packaged unit
which can be installed in a
window or an external wall. Its
capacity may be up to 10 kW. It
has a direct expansion
evaporator-cooling coil (E) and a
condenser (CD) cooled by the
outdoor air.
 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AIR CONDITION
INSTALLATION
A console type air-conditioning unit.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AIR CONDITION
INSTALLATION
A split type air-conditioning unit.

The split units have the cooling

coil (evaporator, E) and fan
inside the room, whilst the more
noisy compressor (C) and
condenser (CD) are included in
the
outdoor unit
 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AIR CONDITION
INSTALLATION
entral air condition system

In larger systems the air is treated in an air-handling unit,

which includes the fan and is distributed by a ductwork.

The heating coil of the air-handling unit is served by a boiler, which delivers
hot water.

The cooling coil can be of a direct expansion type, i.e. the evaporator of the
cooling machine itself.

Chiller (the evaporator shaped as a refrigerant-to water heat exchanger),

supplying chilled water to the cooling coil.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AIR CONDITION
INSTALLATION

A typical central air-handling unit (arrangement diagram).

CLASSIFICATION OF HVAC SYSTEMS
One way to classify HVAC systems is by the media used to transfer heat.
Although thousands of liquids and gases can be used as carriers of heat, the
three most common in building applications are air, water, and refrigerant.
Traditionally, there are three main system classifications:

• All-air systems
• Air and water systems
• All-water systems
CLASSIFICATION OF HVAC SYSTEMS
All-air systems

All-air systems transfer cooled or heated air from a central plant via ducting, distributing air through a series of grilles or
diffusers to the room or rooms being served. It normally comprises the cheapest equipment cost, but is not necessarily easy
or cheap to install in a building due to the size of ducting required and the cost to install.
R DISTRIBUTION WITHIN SPACES
Air Ducts
Duct sizes are frequently of interest early in the design process.
Duct depths can help determine floor heights; duct cross sections
influence the sizes and shapes of the vertical cores that serve
multi-storey buildings.
Ceiling Air Supply

This approach is so widespread that many lighting fixtures are

made to either serve as diffusers for supply air or as intakes
for return-air.
Higher ceilings allow deeper daylight penetration and represent a larger “pool”
of air that is slower to become polluted by occupants or office equipment.

Higher ceilings also encourage underfloor distribution.

DISTRIBUTION WITHIN SPACES

Underfloor Air Supply

Underfloor air supply introduces supply air, through floor
outlets, cooled to just below the design room temperature, at a
low velocity.
SPACES
SPACES
DISTRIBUTION WITHIN SPACES