BASIC ELECTRONICS

(24B11EC111)
UNIT-3
Lecture-1 (Zener Diode and applications, Line and Load Regulations
of reference circuits)
Introduction to Zener Diode
Zener Diodes are basically the same as the standard PN junction diodes but they are
specially designed to have a low and specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which
takes advantage of any reverse voltage applied to it.

The symbol of Zener diode is shown in Fig. 1(a). The

standard PN junction diode and the Zener diode are presented
side by side in Fig. 1 to ensure that the direction of
conduction of each is clearly understood together with the
required polarity of the applied voltage.
For the Zener diode the direction of conduction is opposite to (a) (b)
that of the arrow in the symbol, as pointed out in the
Fig. 1 (a) Zener diode
introduction to this section. Note also that the polarity of and (b) standard PN junction diode
are the same as would be obtained if each were a resistive
element as shown in Fig 1.
 Zener Diode I-V characteristic

• The Zener diode, when biased in the forward

direction, that is Anode positive with respect to its
Cathode, behaves just like a normal PN junction
diode passing the rated current.

• However, unlike a conventional diode which

blocks any flow of current through itself when
reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more
positive than the Anode, as soon as the reverse
voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the Zener
diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.
Fig 2: Zener diode characteristics with
equivalent model for each region
 Zener Diode I-V characteristic
• This is because when the reverse voltage applied across the Zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of
the device a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a
current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.

• The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connected to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve, we can see that the Zener
diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless
of the value of the current flowing through the diode.

• This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing the Zener diodes
current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its maximum current rating IZ(max).

• The location of the Zener region can be controlled by varying the doping levels. An increase in
doping that produces an increase in the number of added impurities, will decrease
the Zener potential.
 Zener Diode I-V characteristic
• This ability of the Zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise
a voltage source against supply or load variations.

• The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out
to be an important characteristic of the Zener diode as it can be used in the simplest types of
voltage regulator applications.

• The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in
parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations in the load current.
 Zener Specifications
Table 1 Electrical characteristics of Zener diode at 25 ambient temperature
Voltage Test Maximum Maximum Knee Maximum Test Maximum Typical
Nominal Current Dynamic Impedance at Reverse Voltage Regulator Temperature
(V) (mA) Impedance at (Ω) (mA) Current (V) Current Coefficient
(Ω) at (µA) (mA)

10 12.5 8.5 700 0.25 10 7.2 32 +0.072

• The specification sheet for a 10-V, 500-mW, 20% Zener diode is provided as Table 1 , Zener diode
characteristics with equivalent model for each region Fig. 2. This figure shows characteristics of the
Zener diode under forward and reverse regions along with its circuital models.
• The term nominal used in the specification of the Zener voltage simply indicates that it is a typical
average value. Since this is a 20% diode, the Zener potential of the unit one picks out of a lot (a
term used to describe a package of diodes) can be expected to vary as 10 V 20%, or from 8 V to 12
V.
• The test current is the current defined by the 1 ⁄4-power level. It is the current that will define the
dynamic resistance and appears in the general equation for the power rating of the device. That is, .
Zener Specifications
• The dynamic resistance is 8.5Ω, which is usually small enough to be ignored in most
applications and as the same increases to higher values (500 Ω, 700 Ω) it cannot be ignored
(reverse bias)
• At a reverse-bias voltage the application of a test voltage of 7.2 V results in a reverse saturation
current of 10 mA, a level that could be of some concern in some applications.
• The temperature coefficient () in percent per degree centigrade. The Zener potential of a Zener
diode is very sensitive to the temperature of operation. The temperature coefficient can be used
to find the change in Zener potential due to a change in temperature using the following
equation: V V
TC  Z Z 100% /  C
T1  T0

where, T1 is the new temperature level

T0 is room temperature in an enclosed cabinet (25°C)
TC is the temperature coefficient
VZ is the nominal Zener potential at 25°C.
VZ is the change in Zener potential
 Example-1
Example- Analyze the 10V Zener diode with typical temperature coefficient of
+0.072%/°C, if the temperature is increased to 100°C (the boiling point of water).

Solution
TC VZ
VZ  (T1  T0 )
100%
(0.072)(10)
VZ  (100 C  25 C )
100%
VZ 0.54V
The resulting Zener potential is now

VZ VZ  VZ 10.54V

 Example-2
Example- At what temperature will the 10-V Zener diode, with typical temperature
coefficient of +0.072%/°C, have a nominal voltage of 10.75 V?

Solution VZ 10.75  10 0.75V

VZ (100)
T1  T0 
TCVZ
0.75(100)
T1  T0  104.17 C
0.072(10)

T1 25 C  104.17 C
T1 129.17 C
 Example-3
Example- Determine the temperature coefficient of a 5-V Zener diode (rated 25°C value)
if the nominal voltage drops to 4.8 V at a temperature of 100 deg

Solution ∆𝑉 𝑧 = 4.8 − 5
VZ VZ
TC  100% /  C
T1  T0
0 .2 5
TC  100% /  C
100  25
𝑇 𝐶 =− 0.053 % / ℃
Lecture 2
Zener diode analysis
The analysis of networks employing
Zener diodes is quite similar to the
analysis of semiconductor diodes in
previous sections. First the state of the
diode must be determined, followed by a
substitution of the appropriate model and
a determination of the other unknown
quantities of the network
Fig3 shows the approximate equivalent
circuits for the Zener diode in the three
possible regions of application
The use of a Zener diode as a regulator
will then be described in detail because it
is one of its major areas of application. A
Fig3: Approximate equivalent circuits for regulator is a combination of elements
the Zener diode in the three possible designed to ensure that the output voltage
regions of application of a supply remains fairly constant.
 Example 4: Zener diode for LED lamp
Determine the reference voltages provided by the network of Fig. 4 , which
uses a white LED to indicate that the power is on. What is the level of current
through the LED and the power delivered by the supply? How does the
power absorbed by the LED compare to that of the 6-V Zener diode? Assume
that the LED operates at 5 V.
Solution:

The power delivered by the supply = 40=769mW

The power absorbed by the LED is =96.15mW
the power absorbed by the 6-V Zener diode is = 6 =115.38mW
Fig 4: Zener diode for LED
Therefore, The power absorbed by the Zener diode exceeds that of the LED
by 19.23mW
 Zener Diode Applications
• The most common application of the Zener diode is to use Zener
diode as a regulator.

• The basic configuration appears as shown in Fig. 2.

• The following three conditions surrounding the analysis of the basic

Zener regulator are considered.
Fig 5: Basic Zener regulator
Fig. 2. Basic Zener regulator
1. Vi and RL Fixed
2. Fixed Vi, Variable RL
3. Fixed RL, Variable Vi
and Fixed
The simplest of Zener diode regulator networks appears in Fig.
5 . The applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor. The
analysis can fundamentally be broken down into two steps.
1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from
the network and calculating the voltage across the resulting
open circuit. Applying step 1 to the network of Fig. 5 results
in the network of Fig. 6 , where an application of the voltage Fig 6: Determining the state of the Zener
divider rule results in diode

If V , the Zener diode is on, and the appropriate equivalent

model can be substituted.
If V < , the diode is off, and the open-circuit equivalence is
substituted.
2. Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired
unknowns. For the network of Fig. 5 , the “on” state will result in the
equivalent network of Fig. 7. Since voltages across parallel elements
must be the same, we find that

The Zener diode current must be determined by an application of

Kirchhoff’s current law. That is,

Fig 7: Substituting the Zener equivalent

and for the “on” situation.
The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined by

that must be less than the specified for the device.

It is particularly important to realize that the first step was employed only
to determine the state of the Zener diode. If the Zener diode is in the “on”
state, the voltage across the diode is not V volts. When the system is turned
on, the Zener diode will turn on as soon as the voltage across the Zener
diode is volts. It will then “lock in” at this level and never reach the higher
level of V volts.
 EXAMPLE - 5
a) For the Zener diode network of Fig. 9 , determine , , , and .
b) Repeat part (a) with = 3 kΩ.
Solution
=
Since V = 8.73 V is less than = 10 V, the diode is in the “off” state,
as shown on the characteristics of Fig. 3. Substituting the open-
circuit equivalent results in the same network as in Fig. 10 , where Fig 9: Zener diode regulator
we find that
= V = 8.73 V
= - = 16 V - 8.73 V = 7.27 V
=0A
and = = (0 A) = 0 W

Subdivision b can be done by students Ans: =10V , = 6V , , and =

26.7mW
Fig 10: Determining V for the
regulator of Fig. 9 .
Lecture 3
 Fixed , Variable
Due to the offset voltage , there is a specific range of resistor values (and therefore load current) that
will ensure that the Zener is in the “on” state. Too small a load resistance will result in a voltage
across the load resistor less than , and the Zener device will be in the “off” state
To determine the minimum load resistance of Fig. 5 that will turn the Zener diode on, simply
calculate the value of that will result in a load voltage = . That is,

Solving for , we have

Any load resistance value greater than the obtained from above equation of will ensure that the
Zener diode is in the “on” state and the diode can be replaced by its source equivalent.
=
resulting in a minimum IZ when IL is a maximum and a maximum IZ when IL is a minimum
value, since IR is constant.
Since IZ is limited to IZM as provided on the data sheet, it does affect the range of RL and
therefore IL. Substituting IZM for IZ establishes the minimum IL as:
ILmin = IR – IZM
and the maximum load resistance as:
Example - 6
a. For the network of Fig. 2 , determine the range of RL
and IL that will result in VRL
being maintained at 10 V.
b. Determine the maximum wattage rating of the diode.
Solution (a)
Fig. 11
To determine the value of RL that will turn the Zener diode on, apply
(2).
RVZ (1k )(10)
RL min   250 ohm
Vi  VZ 50  10
The voltage across the resistor R is then determined by (4)
VR = Vi – VZ = 50 – 10 = 40 V
and the magnitude of IR is given as
V 40
I R  R  40 mA
R 1k
Cont…
The minimum level of IL is then given by (7),

ILmin = IR – IZM = 40 – 32 = 8 mA

The maximum value of RL

VZ 10
RL max   1.25 k ohm
I L min 8 mA

The results reveal that for the network of Fig. 2 with a fixed Vi, the output voltage will remain
fixed at 10 V for a range of load resistance that extends from 250 Ω to 1.25 kΩ.

Solution (b)

Pmax = VZIZM = 10(32 mA) = 320 mW

3. Fixed RL and Variable Vi
For fixed values of RL in Fig.1, the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to turn the Zener diode on.
The minimum turn-on voltage Vi = Vimin is determined by
RLVi
VZ VL 
R  RL
( RL  R )VZ
Vi min 
RL
The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum Zener current IZM. Since
IZM = IR – IL,

IRmax = IZM + IL
Cont…

Since IL is fixed at VZ/RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ, the maximum Vi is defined by

Vimax = VRmax + VZ

Vimax = IRmaxR + VZ
Example
Example- Determine the range of values of Vi that will
maintain the Zener diode of Fig. 3 in the “on” state.

Solution
To determine the minimum value of Vi , apply (10). Fig. 12

( RL  R )VZ (1200  220)20

Vi min   23.67V
RL 1200

The fixed load current IL is then determined by

VL VZ 20
IL    16.67 mA
RL RL 1200
 Cont…

The maximum value of IR is then determined by (12),

IRmax = IZM + IL = 60 + 16.67 = 76.67 mA

To determine the maximum value of Vi , apply (14),

Vimax = IRmaxR + VZ

Vimax = (76.67 mA)(220) + 20

Vimax = 36.87 V

The results reveal that for the network of Fig. 3 with a fixed RL, the output voltage will remain
fixed at 20 V for a range of input voltage that extends from 23.67 V to 36.87 V.
Lecture 4
Example-7
Example- An unloaded zener voltage regulator has an input source voltage of 20 V, a series
resistance of 330 Ω, and a zener voltage of 12 V. How much current is flowing through the
zener diode ?

Solution

Vi = 20 V, R = 330 Ω, VZ = 12

Since load is disconnected, IL = 0. Therefore,

Vi  VZ 20  12
I Z I R   24.2 mA
R 330
Example-8
Example- An unloaded zener voltage regulator has an input source voltage of 20 V, a series
resistance of 330 Ω, and a zener voltage of 12 V. If the series resistor has a tolerance of ±10
%, what is the maximum zener current ??

Solution

Vi = 20 V, R = 330 Ω, VZ = 12

Minimum value of series resistor, Rmin = 330 – 0.1×330 = 297 Ω. Thus,

maximum value of zener current is

Vi  VZ 20  12
I Z I R   26.9 mA
Rmin 297
Example-9
a. Design the network of Fig. 4 to maintain VL at 12 V
for load variation (IL) from 0 mA to 200 mA. That
is, determine RS and VZ.
b. Determine PZ max for the Zener diode of part (a).
Solution (a)
Fig. 4
Given, VL = 12V, ILmin = 0, ILmax = 200 mA.

The Zener diode must be on to maintain VL at 12V and VZ must also be equal to VL. Therefore,

VL = VZ = 12V
The minimum value of load resistance to make the Zener diode on is given by
RSVZ RS (12)
RL min   3RS
Vi  VZ 16  12
Cont…
The load current is maximum when load resistance is minimum and given by

VZ 12
I L max 
RL min
,  200 mA 
3RS
,

RS = 20Ω

Once the Zener diode is in the “on” state, the voltage across RS remains fixed at
VRS = Vi – VZ = 16 – 12 = 4V

The current through the RS is also fixed and given as

V 4
I R  RS  0.2 A
RS 20
Cont…
The current through the Zener diode is maximum (IZM) when the load current is minimum and given as

IZM = IR – ILmin = 0.2 – 0 = 0.2A

Solution (b)
The maximum power rating of Zener diode is given as
PZM = IZMVZ = 0.2(12) = 2.4 W
VOLTAGE REGULATION

VOLTAGE REGULATION

= No Load voltage across the load resistance

= Full Load voltage across the load resistance
References
1. Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, 11thed, Prentice Hall of India,
2014.

2. A. S. Sedra,, and K. C. Smith, ‘Microelectronic Circuits’. Oxford Oxford University Press, 7 th Edition,
2012.