CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGY AND
PSYCHOLOGY
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM
A vast telephone system with brains
as the control center.
It allows messages to travel from one
part of the body to another.
It control both voluntary and
involuntary movement
The Neuron
Neurons – are the nerve cells
Anatomy of neurons explain that neuron is the
basic unit of the nervous system.
TheNeurons and the Nervous System- It provides
pathways for a chain reaction to your body.
TheNeurons and How they Function – There are
messages that are sent to the brain so movement
are coordinated.
Neuron- Basic Element of the
Nervous System
CONTINUATION
Neurons are specialized cells of the nervous system
that conduct impulses. Neurons can be visualized
as having branches, trunks, and roots— something
like trees.
glialcells cells that remove dead neurons and
waste products from the nervous system, nourish
and insulate neurons, form myelin, and play a role
in neural transmission of messages
myelin a fatty substance that encases and insulates
axons, facilitating transmission of neural impulses
Basic Elements of Nervous
System – Are found at the end of the cell body.
Dendrites
A neuron have more than one dendrite.
Theyare fine and tiny hairlike structure that
branch out to look like branches of tree.
Mainfunction is to receive nerve impulses from
other nearby neurons and send information to
other end of the neuron.
AxonalTransmission – The transmission of nerve
impulses within the neuron.
Axon
There is only one axon in a neuron
Found at its other end
Axon transmit information away from the
cell body and makes connection or
contracts with other dendrites of other cells
to other neurons.
SynapticImpulse- The chemical process of
transmitting information from neuron to
neuron
Types of Neuron
Sensory or Afferent Neurons
Association Neurons or Interneurons
Motor or Efferent Neurons
Sensory Neurons or Afferent
Neurons
Activated by environmental stimuli
and information about environment.
Neurons that transmit messages from
sensory receptors to the spinal cord
and brain; also called sensory neurons
Association Neurons
Whichare found between
sensory to motor neurons
Motor Neurons OR Efferent
Neurons
Control activities of the muscles
and glands. neurons that transmit
messages from the brain or
spinal cord to muscles and
glands; also called motor neurons
Axonal Transmission
Messages are transmitted and follow
only one direction
This happen when one neurons forms
a pathway for messages to reach the
spinal cord and brain and out to reach
the organs of response.
The Nerve Impulse
The message that is conveyed to the
nervous system. It is an electro
chemical disturbances that is passed
by a dendrite inward to the cell body,
then to the axon.
The Synapse
Nerve impulses pass through the nerve fibers with
great speed.
Each junction or point of contact between two
neurons is known as synapse.
Synapse is a place where one neurons makes
connection with another one.
There is a slight microscopic distance between
neurons called synaptic gap.
Reflexes
Is an automatic response to a
stimulus by some parts of the
body.
Divisions of Nervous System
central nervous system the brain and spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system is the part of the nervous system
consisting of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system
The somatic nervous system contains sensory (afferent) and motor
(efferent) neurons. It transmits messages about sights, sounds, smells,
temperature, body positions, and so on, to the central nervous system.
Messages transmitted from the brain and spinal cord to the somatic
nervous system control purposeful body movements such as raising a
hand, winking, or running, as well as the tiny, almost imperceptible
movements that maintain our balance and posture.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) also has afferent and efferent
neurons and regulates the glands and the muscles of internal organs.
Spinal Cord
Isa long bundle of nerves which leave the brain
and run down the length of the back.
Isthe main means for communicating messages
between the brain and the body.
Isa complex interconnection of sensory neurons
and motor neurons that provides pathway for
nerve impulse.
Brain
Ties the nervous system together.
The most wonderful structure of the
body.
Is the control center of the entire
nervous system
The Major Division of the Brain
The Major Division of the Brain
Medulla- Above the spinal cord. It Controls the
involuntary muscles that are associated with the
basic physical rhythm like breathing and
heartbeat.
Pons-Acts as transmitter of motor information
permitting coordination of muscles and
movement.
Cerebellum- Control movement and body
balance if damage speaking ability is affected.
Limbic System
Limbic system contains:
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Septal area
3 PRIMARY DIVISION OF THE
BRAIN
1. FOREBRAIN - largest part of your brain.
2.MIDBRAIN- The midbrain or mesencephalon is the
forward-most portion of the brainstem and is associated
with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep and
wakefulness, arousal (alertness), and temperature
regulation
3.
HINDBRAIN -hindbrain, also called rhombencephalon,
region of the developing vertebrate brain that is
composed of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
cerebellum
CEREBELLUM
CONTROL MOVEMENT AND
BALANCE
FOUND JUST ABOVE THE
MEDULLA
CEREBRAL CORTEX
COMPOSED OF 2 HEMISPHERE
LEFT HEMISPHERE
RIGHT HEMISPHERE
NEUROTRANSMITTERS: THE CHEMICAL
KEYS TO COMMUNICATION
neurotransmitters chemical substances involved in the transmission of neural
impulses from one neuron to another
receptor site a location on a dendrite of a receiving neuron tailored to receive
a neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (ACh) a neurotransmitter that controls muscle contractions
hippocampus a structure of the brain that is involved in memory formation
dopamine a neurotransmitter that affects the ability to perceive pleasure,
voluntary movement, and learning and memory; it is involved in Parkinson’s
disease and appears to play a role in schizophrenia
Continuation
norepinephrine a neurotransmitter whose action is similar to that of
the hormone epinephrine and that may play a role in depression
serotonin a neurotransmitter involved in emotional arousal and sleep;
deficiencies of serotonin have been linked to eating disorders,
alcoholism, depression, aggression, and insomnia
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) an inhibitory neurotransmitter that
apparently helps calm anxiety
endorphins inhibitory neurotransmitters that occur naturally in the
brain and in the bloodstream and are similar to the narcotic morphine
in their functions and effects
UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN
electroencephalograph(EEG) a method of detecting
brain waves by means of measuring the current
between electrodes placed on the scalp
computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT scan) a
method of brain imaging that passes a narrow X-ray
beam through the head and measures the structures
that reflect the beams from various angles, enabling a
computer to generate a three-dimensional image
CONTINUATION
positron emission tomography (PET scan) a method of brain imaging
that injects a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream and assesses
activity of parts of the brain according to the amount of glucose they
metabolize
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) an imaging method that places a
person in a magnetic field and uses radio waves to cause the brain to
emit signals that reveal shifts in the flow of blood, which, when the
brain is being scanned, indicate brain activity
scanned, indicate brain activity electroencephalograph (EEG) a method
of detecting brain waves by means of measuring the current between
electrodes placed on the scalp functional MRI (fMRI) a form of MRI that
enables researchers to observe the brain “while it works” by taking
repeated scans
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
limbic system a group of structures
involved in memory, motivation, and
emotion that forms a fringe along the
inner edge of the cerebrum
amygdala a part of the limbic system
that apparently facilitates stereotypical
aggressive responses
THE
STRUCTUR
E OF THE
CEREBRAL
CORTEX
The cerebral cortex
has two
hemispheres, left
and right. Each of
the hemispheres is
divided into four
lobes.
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS In some ways,
the left and right hemispheres of the
brain duplicate each other’s functions.
In other ways, they differ. The left
hemisphere contains language
functions for nearly all right-handed
people and for two out of three left-
handed people (Pinker, 2007).
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus work in close cooperation. The pituitary
gland lies below the hypothalamus. Although the pituitary is only about the size of
a pea, it is so central to the body’s functioning that it has been dubbed the
“master gland.”
The anterior (front) and posterior (back) lobes of the pituitary gland secrete
hormones that regulate the functioning of many other glands.
Growth hormone regulates the growth of muscles, bones, and glands. Children
whose growth patterns are abnormally slow may catch up to their age-mates
when they obtain growth hormone.
Prolactin regulates maternal behavior in lower mammals such as rats and
stimulates production of milk in women.
. Oxytocin stimulates labor in pregnant women and is connected with maternal
behavior (cuddling and caring for young) in some mammals (Stolzenberg &
Champagne, 2016).
The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps
regulate the sleep-wake cycle and may affect the onset of puberty.
The thyroid gland could be considered the body’s accelerator. It
produces thyroxin, which affects the body’s metabolism—the rate at
which the body uses oxygen and produces energy.
The adrenal glands, located above the kidneys, have an outer layer,
or cortex, and an inner core, or medulla. The adrenal cortex is
regulated by the pituitary hormone ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic
hormone). The adrenal cortex secretes hormones known as
corticosteroids or cortical steroids. These hormones regulate the
heart beat, increase resistance to stress, promote muscle
development, and cause the liver to release stored sugar, making
more energy available in emergencies, such as when you see
another car veering toward your own.
The testes and ovaries also produce steroids, among them testosterone and
estrogen. (Testosterone is also produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands.
EVOLUTION AND HEREDITY
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES
THE END
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