HARDWARE

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

• CPU also known as Processor.

• Present in all types of computers including smart phones and tablets.
• Installed as integrated circuit on a single microchip.
• What does it do? It executes/processes the instructions and data in a
computer application.
• It consists of:
- control unit (CU),
- arithmetic and logic unit (ALU),
- registers and buses
 VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

• Early computers- data being fed while they were running as it was
not possible to store programs/data- can not work without human
intervention.
• In mid 1940s, John Von Neumann developed the concept of stored
program computer.
• Features of Von Neumann architecture:
- The concept of CPU/processor
- The CPU was able to access the memory directly.
- Computer memory could store programs and data.
- Stored programs consisted of instructions executed in sequential
order.
 COMPONENTS OF THE CPU

• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

- it allows the arithmetic (+,-, and shifting) or logic (AND, OR) operations to be carried out while a program is being
run.
- it is possible for a computer to have more than one ALU to carry out specific functions.
- multiplication and division are carried out using logical shifts.
• Control Unit (CU)

- it reads the instructions from the memory. The address of the location where the instruction can be found is stored
in the Program Counter (PC)- this instruction is then decoded using Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle.
- Signals are generated along the control bus to tell the other components in the computer what to do.
- CU ensures synchronisation of the data flow and program instructions throughout the computer.
- A System Clock is used to produce timing signals on the control bus to ensure this synchronisation- without this
clock the computer will crash.
FUNCTION OF RAM IN CU

• The RAM holds all the data and programs needed to be accessed by the
CPU. RAM is also referred to as Immediate Access Store (IAS).
• The CPU takes data and programs held in backing store (HDD) and puts
them into RAM temporarily. This is done to carry out read/write
operations faster. As it is faster to carry out read/write operations from
RAM than HDD.
• Any key data needed by an application will be stored temporarily in
RAM to considerably speed up operations.
 FUNCTION OF REGISTERS IN CU

• Registers- one of the fundamental components of the Von Neumann system. They can be general
/special purpose.
• Special purpose registers are listed below:
- CIR (Current instruction register)- stores the current instruction being executed.
- ACC (Accumulator) – used to carry out ALU calculations, stores data temporarily during the
calculations.
- MAR (Memory Address Register) – stores the address of the memory location currently being
read from/written to.
- MDR (Memory Data/Buffer Register) – stores the data which has just been read from
memory/about ot be.
- PC (Program Counter) – stores the address where the next instruction to be read can be found.
SYSTEM BUSES AND MEMORY
 SYSTEM BUSES

• System buses are used in computers as parallel transmission components; each wire in the bus
transmits one bit of data. There are 3 buses used in Von Neumann architecture known as: address bus,
control bus and data bus.
• ADDRESS BUS: it carries addresses throughout the system. It is unidirectional between CPU and
memory- this prevents addresses being carries back to the CPU, which is not needed. WIDTH of the bus
(is important)- wider the bus, the more memory locations can be directly accessed at any given time. If
a bus width is 16 bits, then it can address 2 16 (65536) memory locations simultaneously.
• DATA BUS: It is bidirectional- data can be carried from CPU to memory (and vice a versa) and to
input/output devices. Data can be an address, an instruction or a numerical value. . WIDTH of the bus
(is important)- wider the bus, larger the word length that can be transported. WORD is a group of bits
which can be regarded as a single unit, e.g., 16-bit, 32-bit or 64-bit word length is very common. Larger
word length can improve computer’s overall performance.
• CONTROL BUS: is also bidirectional. It carries signals from CU to other
computer components. It is 8-bits wide. There is no real need for it to
be any wider since it only carries control signals.
 FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE

• To execute instructions, the CPU first of all fetches some data and instructions from memory and stores
them in suitable registers. Data bus and address bus are used in this process. Once it is done, the
instructions and decoded and then executed. This is known as the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle.
• Fetch – data and instructions can be stored in MDR, in FDE cycle, the next instruction is fetched from
the memory address from PC is then stored in MAR and the instruction is stored in MDR. The contents
of MDR are copied to Current Instruction Register (CIR). The Program Counter (PC) is incremented (by
1) so that the next instruction can then be processed.
• Decode – the instruction is then decoded.
• Execute – the CPU passes the decoded instruction as a set of control signals to the appropriate
components within the system. This allows the instructions to be carried out in the logical sequence.
 CORES, CACHE AND INTERNAL CLOCK-
FACTORS THAT DETERMINES THE
PERFORMANCE OF CPU
• ROLE of SYSTEM CLOCK: it defines the clock cycle that synchronises all the computer operations. (CONTROL
BUS transmits timing signals that synchronises all the jobs).
• By increasing the clock speed, the processing speed of the computer is also increased. Typical value is 3.5
GHz- which means 3.5 billion clock cycles a second.
• By using higher clock speed, the speed of the computer system can be increased but that do not necessarily
increase the computer’s overall performance. The other factors that are responsible are:
1. WIDTH of the address bus and data bus- can increase overall performance.
2. OVERCLOCKING- the clock speed can be changed by altering the settings of BIOS (Binary Input/Output
System).
Problems that may occur due to overclocking- unsynchronised operations (instruction is unable to complete
in time before the next one is due to be executed; computer would frequently crash and become unstable), can
lead to serious overheating of the CPU leading to unreliable performance.
CORES, CACHE AND INTERNAL CLOCK-
FACTORS THAT DETERMINES THE
PERFORMANCE OF CPU- CONTD..
3. CACHE MEMORIES- the use of cache can improve CPU performance. Cache memory is located
within the CPU, which means it has much faster data access times than RAM. Cache memory stored
frequently used instructions and data that need to be accessed faster, which improves CPU
performance. When CPU wishes to read memory, first it will check Cache and then RAM/main memory
if the required data in not there. The larger the size of the cache memory, better the CPU
performance.
4. Use of different number of CORES can improve computer performance. One core is made up of an
ALU, a control unit and the registers.
Many computers are dual core (CPU is made up of 2 cores) or quad core (4 cores CPU).
Using more cores alleviates the need to continually increase clock speeds. However, doubling the
number of cores does not necessarily double the computer’s performance because CPU needs to
communicate with each core – this will reduce overall performance.
CORES, CACHE AND INTERNAL CLOCK- FACTORS THAT
DETERMINES THE PERFORMANCE OF CPU- CONTD..

• With a dual core the CPU

communicates with both cores
using one channel reducing some
of the potential increase in its
performance.
• With a quad core the CPU
communicates with all four cores
using six channels, considerably
reducing potential performance
(refer Fig 3.4 and 3.5, page-81of
the book).
 INSTRUCTION SET

• Instructions are a set of operations which are decoded in sequence. Each operation will instruct the
ALU and CU. An operation is made up of opcode(informs the CPU what operation needs to be done)
and operand (the data acted on or it can refer to a register in the memory). The computer needs to
understand the operation to be carried out, there is a limited number of opcodes that can be used
known as instruction set. FDE cycle is the sequence of steps used by the CPU to process each
instruction in sequence.
• X86 is the common instruction set used in many modern computers. Different computer
manufacturers adopt their own electronic design, if the computer is based on X86, all designs will
share almost identical instruction sets.
• NOTE: instruction sets are different from programming code. Instruction sets are the low-level
language instructions that instructs CPU how to carry out an operation. Program code needs
interpreters and compilers to convert the code into the instruction sets understood by the computer.
 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

• It is a combination of hardware and software which is designed to carry out a specific set of functions. The
H/W can be electronic, electrical or electro-mechanical.
• Embedded systems are based on: Microcontrollers- it has CPU, RAM and ROM, and other peripherals all
embedded onto one single chip (together they carry out a specific task). Microprocessor- This has an
integrated circuit which only has a CPU on the chip (no RAM,ROM or peripherals- these need to be added).
System on chips- this may contain a microcontroller (includes CPU, memory, I/O ports and secondary
storage on a single microchip).
• INPUT: When installed in a device, either an operator can input data manually (ex, select a temperature
from a keypad) or the data will come from an automatic source, such as a sensor. This sensor input will be
analogue or digital. Ex, oxygen levels or fuel pressure in a car’s management system.
• OUTPUT: Output is carried by sending signals to the components that are being controlled. Ex, increase the
power to the heating elements in an oven or reduce fuel levels in the engine.
 TYPES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

• Depending on the device, embedded systems are either programmable or non-programmable. Non-programmable
are to be replaced if they require a software upgrade.
• Programmable devices permit upgrading by two methods: connecting the device to a computer and allowing the
download updates to the software. Ex, to update the maps on a GPS system used in a vehicle. Automatic updates
via a Wi-Fi, satellite or cellular. Ex, many modern cars allow updates to engine management systems and other
components via satellite links.
• Refer table 3.3 for benefits and drawbacks of embedded systems.
• Embedded systems can be controlled remotely using a smartphone or computer as they can be connected to the
internet. Ex, setting the central heating system to switch on or off while away from home, remotely instructing a
set top box to record a television programme.
• Engineers can optimise their designs to reduce their size and cost. Computers are multi-functional and therefore
cannot be classed as embedded systems.
 EXAMPLES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

• Motor vehicles – refer fig 3.7

• Set-top boxes- uses embedded systems to record or playback television programmes. Can be operated
remotely while away from home using an internet enabled device or by using interface panel at home.
The embedded systems can take inputs from a number of sources such as solid-state drives (SSD) where
television programmes can be stored or retrieved from. Or a satellite signal (where it will be necessary to
decode the incoming signal). Refer fig 3.8
• Embedded system in Security systems – the security code is set in RAM and the alarm activated or
deactivated using the keypad. Data from sensors is sent to the controller which checks against values
stored on the SSD (these settings are on SSD rather than on RAM in case the sensitivity needs to be
adjusted). An output can be a signal sent to flash-lights, sound an alarm or send a message to the home-
owner via their mobile phones. The home-owner can also interface with the system remotely when
needed.
 EXAMPLES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

• Lighting systems- embedded systems are used in the lighting systems of home and complex architectures as well. Here is
the embedded system of the lighting system used in a large office. The system needs to control the lighting based on: the
time of day or day of the week; whether the room is occupied; the brightness of the natural light.
• The embedded system can automatically control the lighting using a number of inputs (such as light sensors) and key
data stored in memory.
• The time of the day/day of the week is important data in the office environment as the energy can be saved if the system
is switched on to the low lighting levels when the office is unoccupied; and the correct lighting levels will be automatically
restored if there is a movement.
• On the bright sunny day, the system could automatically dim the lights, only increasing the light output if natural light
falls below a set value.
• Uses of embedded system in different lighting systems: a fountain light display, light show on a building to commemorate
an occasion, to trigger emergency lights in an aircraft in case of an emergency, Some lighting systems use Bluetooth. This
allows embedded systems to control each bulb independently. Many bulbs used these days are LED’s and come in many
colours.
 EXAMPLES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

• Vending machines use microcontrollers to control a number of functions. Refer fig. 3.11.
• Input: comes from the keypad (item selection) and from sensors (used to count the coins inserted, the
temperature inside the machine and a ‘tilt sensor’ for security purposes.
• Output: -Actuators (to operate the motors that drives the helixes to give the customers their selected
items). –Signals to operate the cooling system if the temperature is too high. – item description and any
change due shown on an LCD display panel. – Data sent back to the vending machine company so that
they can remotely check sales activity.
• All of this is controlled by embedded systems which makes the whole operation automatic but also gives
immediate sales analysis which would otherwise be very time consuming.
• Washing machines, microwave ovens, refrigerators etc. are controlled by embedded systems. They all
come with a keypad or dials used to select the temp, wash cycle or cooking duration. The tasks are carried
out without human intervention. These devices can be operated remotely using an internet-enabled
smartphone or computer.
 INPUT SYSTEMS- BARCODE SCANNERS
(READERS)
• A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of varying thickness. The numbers to 9
are each represented by a unique series of lines. Example:
• Different codes are used for the digits appearing on the left and for the digits appearing on
the right.
• Each digit in the barcode is represented by bars of 1 to 4 blocks. There are
Different patterns for digits on the left-hand side and for the digits on the
right-hand side.
Each digit is made up of 2 dark lines and 2 light lines. The width representing each digit is
the same. The digits on the left have an odd number of dark elements and always begin with
the light bar; the digits on the right have an even number of dark elements and always
begin with a dark bar. This arrangement allows a barcode to scan in any direction.
 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A BARCODE IS
SCANNED?
• the barcode is read by a red laser or LED.
• The light is reflected back off the barcode; the dark areas reflect little or no light, which allows the bars
to be read.
• The reflected light is read by sensors. As the laser or LED light is scanned across the barcode, a pattern
is generated, which is converted into digital data- this allows the computer to understand the barcode.
• Ex, the digit ‘3’ on the left generates the pattern: L D D D D L D (L=light and D=dark), this has a binary
equivalent 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 (where L=0 and D=1).
• Barcodes are commonly used in the supermarkets during checkouts. Other input/output devices at the
checkout are:
•
 WHAT HAPPENS AFTER THE BARCODE HAS
BEEN READ?
• The barcode number is looked up in the stock database (known as key field in the stock item record). This
key field uniquely identifies each stock item.
• When the barcode number is found, the stock item record is looked up.
• Te price and the other stock item details are sent back to the checkout. The number of the stock items in the
record is reduced by 1 each time the barcode is read.
• This new value for number of stock is written back to the stock item record. The number of stock items is
compared to the re-order level; if it is less than or equal to this value, more stock items are automatically
ordered.
• Once the order for more stock items is generated, a flag is added to the record to stop re-ordering every time
the stock item barcode is read.
• When new stock item arrive, the stock levels are updated in the database.
• For advantages to the management and the customers, refer to the book pg 90.
 QUICK RESPONSE (QR) CODES

• QR codes are made up of a matrix filled-in dark squares on a light background. It consists of a block of small
squares (light and dark) known as pixels. It can hold up to 4296 characters (or up to 7089 digits) and also allows
internet addresses to be encoded within QR code.
• This compares to the 30 digits that is maximum for a barcode. As more and more data is added to the code,
more complex its structure gets.
• The three large squares at the corners of the code function as a form of alignment; the remaining small corner
square is used to ensure the correct size and correct angle of the camera shot when the QR code is read.
• Uses of QR code: advertising products, giving automatic access to a website/contact telephone number, storing
boarding passes electronically at airports/tarin stations.
• By using built-in camera in the smart phones/tablets, we can read QR code by pointing the camera at it. The app
will then process the image taken by the phone automatically reads the data generated by the app. It will decode
any web addresses contained within the QR code. The user will be sent to the website automatically, if QR code
contains a boarding pass, it will be sent on the phone.
 ADVANTAGES OF QR CODES COMPARED TO
TRADITIONAL BARCODES
• They can hold more information.
• There will be fewer errors; high capacity QR code has built-in error checking systems-
normal barcodes contains no data redundancy; it is not possible to guard against badly
printed or damaged barcodes.
• They are easier to read; do not require LED or laser scanners like barcodes- can be read by
cameras/phones.
• It is easy to transmit QR codes either as text messages or images.
• QR codes can be encrypted; this gives them greater protection than traditional barcodes.
 DISADVANTAGES OF QR CODES COMPARED
TO TRADITIONAL BARCODES
• More than QR format is available.
• They can be used to transmit malicious codes known as attagging. It is relatively easy
to write malicious code and embed this within QR code. The user can be sent to a fake
website or it is even possible for a virus to be downloaded.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
Newer QR codes also known as frame QR codes are used as they have the ability to add
advertising logos.
They come with a ‘canvas area’ to include graphics or images inside the code itself.
Unlike normal QR codes, software to do this is not usually free.
 DIGITAL CAMERAS

• Traditional cameras used film to capture the images. The film required developing and then printing before
the photographer could see the result of their work- makes it expensive to operate, also unwanted
photographs could not be deleted.
• Digital computer scan simply link to a computer system via USB/Bluetooth. These cameras are controlled by
embedded systems and can adjust the shutter speed, focus image automatically, adjust aperture size and so
on.
• WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A PHOTOGRAPH IS TAKEN- REFER Fig. 3.22 (pg-93)
• The image is captured, when the light passes through the lens, it falls on the light-sensitive cell; this cell is
made up of millions of tiny sensors (acting as) photodiodes- converts light into electricity. The sensors are
pixels that make up the image.
• The image is converted into electric charges that pass through an ADC (analogue to digital converter) to
form a digital image array.
 DIGITAL CAMERAS..CONTD

• The ADC converts the electric charges from each pixel into level of brightness (in digital format) and
also measure colour which produces another binary pattern.
• Example, an 8-bit ADC gives 28 (256) possible brightness levels per pixel.
• Most cameras use 24-bit RGB system (each pixel has 8 bits representing each of the 3 primary
colours.
• The number of pixels determines the size of the file used to store the photograph.
• The quality of the image depends on

- quality of recording device (camera lens and sensors)

- number of pixels used (more pixels, better image)
- the level of light and format in which image is stored.
KEYBOARDS

• Most common method used for data entry. They are connected to the
computer by using either a USB or wireless connection. In tablets and
phones- it is either virtual or touch screen.
• Each character on a keyboard has an ASCII value. Each character
pressed is converted into a digital signal, which the computer
interprets.
• Slow method of data entry, prone to errors yet the easiest way-
frequent use may lead to RSI (repetitive strain injury)- to overcome this
problem- ergonomic keyboards are used to support wrist and hands
HOW COMPUTER RECOGNISES WHEN A
LETTER IS PRESSED ON THE KEYBOARD
• There is a circuit board at the base of the keyboard. (refer fig,3.25)
• When any key is pressed, the circuit gets completed.
• The CPU then can determine which key has been pressed.
• The CPU then refers to the index file to identify which character the key
press represents as each character in the keyboard has a
corresponding ASCII value.
 MICROPHONES

• Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices connected through the
USB/Bluetooth.
• A microphone converts sound waves into electric current that is converted into digital format so that a
computer can process it or store it on CD etc. (refer fig. 3.26)
• When sound is created, it causes vibrations in the air.
• The diaphragm in the microphone begins to vibrate as it picks up the air vibrations.
• The copper coil wrapped around the cone is connected to the diaphragm. As the diaphragm vibrates, the
cone moves in and out causing the copper coil to move backwards and forwards.
• This forward and backward motion causes the coil to cut through the magnetic field around the permanent
magnet, inducing an electric current (analogue). Electric current is amplified/sent to a recording device.
• Sound card converts the current into a digital signal- stored in a computer.
 OPTICAL MOUSE

• Example of pointing device. Uses tiny cameras to take 1500 images per second. Optical
mouse (unlike mechanical mouse) can be used on any surface.
• WORKING: a red LED is used in the base of the mouse which is bounced off the surface and
the reflection is picked up by a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS). The
CMOS generates electric pulses to represent the reflected red light and these pulses are
sent to a digital signal processor (DSP).
• The processor can work out the coordinates based on the changing image patterns as it is
moved about on the surface. The computer can then move the on-screen cursor to the co-
ordinates sent by the mouse.
• Benefits of optical mouse and wired mouse– refer pg- 96
 2D SCANNERS

• 2D scanners-most commonly used. Image is converted into an electronic form that can be stored in the
computer.
• HOW 2D SCANNER WORKS- refer fig. 3.29. the cover is raised- doc is placed on a glass panel and cover is
closed.
• A bright light is produced by LED that illuminates the doc. A scan head moves across the doc until the whole
page has been scanned. An image produced is sent to a lens using a series of mirrors.
• The lens focuses the doc image. The focused image is then falls on CCD (charge couple device) which
converts light into an electric current. (NOTE- CCD is made up of thousand pixels. Each pixel creates electric
charge when light falls on it). The scanned page has turned into an electronic form. Software produces a
digital image from the electronic form.
• OCR (Optical character recognition) s/w converts the scanned doc into the text file format- tis file can then be
edited once imported to a word processor.
 3D SCANNERS

• 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a 3D image. Since solid objects have X,Y, and Z co-ordinates,
these scanners take images at several points along these 3 co-ordinates and a digital image is formed.
• The scanned images can be used in Computer aided design (CAD) or sent to 3D printer to produce a working
model of scanned image. Numerous technologies like magnetic resonance, lasers, white light etc. that are used
in 3D scanners.
• 2D SCANNERS AT THE AIRPORT- used to read passports. They use OCR technology to produce digital images
which represent the passport pages and these images can be manipulated in number of ways.
• OCR review these images, select the text part and automatically put into the correct fields of an existing
database. It is also possible to store the text in ASCII format.
• At many airports, 2D photograph in the passport is scanned and stored as a JPEG format. The passenger’s face
is also captured using digital camera. Both images are compared using face recognition s/w. key positions are
compared. Refer fig 3.30. key positions determine whether or not the two images represents the same face.
 APPLICATION OF 3D SCANNER

• Computed Tomographic (CT) scanners- used to create 3D image of a solid object. This is
based on tomography technology, which builds up an image of the solid object through a
series of very thin slices. Each of these slices make up a representation of the 3D solid
object.
• Each slice is built up by use of X-rays, radio frequencies, or gamma imaging. Each slice is
then stored as a digital image in the computer memory. The whole of the solid object is
represented digitally in the computer memory.
• Refer fig 3.31
 TOUCH SCREENS

• Common form of input device. Allows the users to carry out the same functions as they would with a
mouse.
• There are 3 common types of touch screen technologies used by mobile phones and tablet
manufacturers-capacitive, infrared, resistive.
• CAPACITIVE TOUCH SCREENS- are composed of a layer of glass (protective layer), a transparent
electrode (conductive) layer and a glass substrate. Refer fig 3.32.
• Since human skin is a conductor of electricity, when bare fingers touch the screen, the electrostatic
field of the conductive layer is changed. The installed microcontroller calculates where this change
took place and determine the coordinates of the point of touching.
• Two types of capacitive touch screens: surface and projective (both have same general structure
with slightly different working).
 TOUCH SCREENS…CONTD
• Surface capacitive screens: sensors are placed at the corners of the screen; small voltages are applied at the corners of the screen
creating an electric field. When a finger touches the screen, microcontroller measures the decrease in capacitance and hence
determines the point where the finger touched the screen. This system works only with a bare finger or stylus.
• Projective capacitive screens: the transparent conductive layer is in the form of X-Y matrix pattern. This creates a 3D electrostatic field.
When a finger touches the screen, it disturbs the 3D electrostatic field allowing a microcontroller to determine the coordinates of the
point of contact. This system works with bare fingers, stylus and thin surgical or cotton gloves. It also allows multi-touch facility.
• Advantages and disadvantages- refer book pg-99
• Infrared touch screens- use a glass screen with an array of sensors and infrared transmitters. Refer fig 3.33. the sensors detect the
infrared radiation. If any of the infrared beams are broken with a finger touching the screen, the infrared radiation reaching the sensor
is reduced. The sensor readings are sent to a microcontroller that calculates where the screen was touched.
• Advantages and disadvantages- refer book pg-100
• Resistive touch screens- is made up of two layers of electrically resistive material with a voltage applied across them. The upper layer is
made up of a flexible polymer called polyethylene with a resistive coating at one side (ref fig 3.35). The bottom layer is made up of
glass with a resistive coating (indium tin oxide) on one side. These layers are separated by air or an inert gas.. When the top surface of
polyethylene is touched, the two layers comes in contact and a circuit is completed that results in flow of electricity. The point of
contact is detected where there was change in voltage.
• A microcontroller converts the voltage to digital data, which it then sends to the microprocessor.
• Advantages and disadvantages- refer book pg-101
 OUTPUT DEVICES

• ACTUATORS- an actuator is a mechanical or

electromechanical device such as relay, solenoid
or motor. When a computer is used to control
devices, such as conveyer belt or a valve, it is
usually necessary to use an actuator to
start/stop the conveyer belt or open/close the
valve.
• A solenoid is something that converts an
electrical signal into a magnetic field producing
linear motion.
PROJECTORS

• LIGHT PROJECTORS-
• DLP (digital light projector)
https://video.search.yahoo.com/search/video;_ylt=AwrjZibCCkllxQQ2C_SJzbkF?p=light+
projectors+working&type=E211US105G91710&fr=mcafee&fr2=p%3As%2Cv%3Ai%2C
m%3Apivot#id=2&vid=caf09f03fa98801d92a5d7dca7303235&action=view
• LCD (liquid crystal display) Projector
• https://video.search.yahoo.com/search/
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3ODEzMDcEX3IDMgRmcgNtY2FmZWUEZnIyA3A6cyx2OnYsbTpzYixyZ246dG9wBGdwcml
kA1hva1hrSzhBVDAybjA2LlRObjhzSEEEbl9yc2x0AzAEbl9zdWdnAzAEb3JpZ2luA3ZpZGVv
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 INKJET AND LASER PRINTERS

• Inkjet printers- is made up of 1. A PRINT HEAD- it consists of nozzles that spray droplets of ink onto the
paper to form characters. 2. AN INK CARTRIDGE/CARTRIDGES. 3. A STEPPER MOTOR AND BELT- moves the
print head across the page from side to side. 4. A PAPER FEED- which automatically feeds the printer with
pages as they are required.
• The ink droplets are produced by: 1. THERMAL BUBBLE- tiny resisters create heat that makes the ink
vaporise. This causes the ink to form a tiny bubble; as the bubble expands; some of the ink is ejected from
the point head onto the paper. When the bubble collapses, a small vacuum is created which allows fresh ink
to be drawn into the print head. This continues until the printing cycle is completed.
• 2. PIEZOELECTRIC- a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle. The crystal is given a
tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate. This vibration forces ink to be ejected onto the paper; at the
same time more ink is drawn in for further printing.
• Basic steps that takes place in printing a document. Refer book table 3.6
LASER PRINTERS

• They use dry powder ink rather liquid ink and make use of the
properties of static electricity to produce the text and images. Unlike
inkjet printers, laser printers print the whole page in one go. Colour
laser printers use 4 toner cartridges- blue, cyan, magenta and black.
Although the actual technology is different to monochrome printers,
the printing method is similar but colored dots are used to build up the
text and images.
• Steps in laser printing process. Refer table 3.7.
• Application of inkjet and laser printers- refer book pg 105.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JEVurb1uVFA (video on working of
inkjet and laser printers).
 3D PRINTING

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JEVurb1uVFA
• 3D printers are used to produce solid objects that actually work. They are orimafrily based on inkjet and laser printer technology.
• The solid object is build up layer by layer using materials such as powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic.
• Various types of 3D printers exist; they range from the size of a microwave oven upto the size of a small car.
• 3D printers use additive manufacturing (object is build up layer by layer); in contrast to the traditional method of subtractive
manufacturing (removal of material to make the object). For example- making a statue using s 3D printer would involve building
it up layer by layer using powdered stone until the final object was formed. The subtractive method would involve carving the
statue out of a solid stone (i.e. removing the stone that is not required) until the final item was produced.
• Direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move left to right as in normal printer. However, the print had can
also move up and down to build up the layers of an object.
• Binder 3D printing is similar to 3D printing. This method uses two passes for each of the layers; the first pass sprays dry powder
and then on the second pass a binder (a type of glue) is sprayed to form a solid layer.
• Steps and uses – refer pg 106 and 107.
 LED AND LCD SCREENS

• LED screens- it is made up of tiny light emitting diodes (LEDs). Each LED is either red, green or blue in color. By varying
the electric current sent to each LED, its brightness can be controlled, producing a vast range of colours.
• This type of screen is used for large outdoor displays due to the brilliance of the colours produced. OLED (organic LED) is
latest advancement.
• Many TV screens are advertised as LED when in fact they are LCD screens which are backlit using LEDs.
• LCD screens- these are made up of tiny liquid crystals. These tiny crystals make up an array of pixels that are affected
by changes in applied electric fields. (working is not in the syllabus). For LCD screens to work. They require some form of
backlighting.
• Because LCD’s don’t produce any light, LCD screens are back-lit using light emitting diode (LED) technology and must
not be confused with pure LED screens. Use of LED backligting gives a very good contrast and brightness range. Before
the use of LEDs, LCD screens uses cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as the back –lit method.
• CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen which supply the light source. When LEDs are used, a matrix of
tiny blue-white LEDs is used behind the LCD screen.
 ADVANTAGES OF LED’S OVER CCFL
TECHNOLOGY
• LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately (there is no need to ‘warm up’ before
reaching full efficiency).
• LEDs give a whiter light that sharpens the image and makes the colours appear more vivid; CCFL has
slightly yellowish tint.
• LEDs produce a brighter light that improves the colour definition.
• Monitors using LED technology are much thinner than monitors using CCFL technology.
• LEDs last indefinitely; this makes the technology more reliable and makes for a more consistent
product.
• LEDs consume very little power which means they produce less heat as well as use less energy.
 OLED

• Newer LED technology is using organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs). These use organic
materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create semi-conductors that are very flexible.
• Organic films are sandwiched between two charged electrodes (one is metallic cathode and
the other a glass anode). When an electric field is applied to the electrodes they give off
light. This means no backlighting is required. This allows very thin screens. OLED is a self-
contained system. It is possible to bend screens to any shape.
• Advantages of OLED over LEDs and LCDs. Refer book pg 109.
 LOUD SPEAKERS

• Loud speakers are output devices that produce sound. When connected to a computer system, digitised sound
stored on a file needs to be converted into sound.
• Digital data is fed to ADC where it is changed into an electric current. This is then passed through an amplifier, this
creates a current large enough to drive a loudspeaker. This electric current is then ed to a loudspeaker where it is
converted into sound. Refer fig 3.46 and 3.47 on page 109.
• If the sound is stored in a computer file, it must pass through a digital to analogue converter (DAC) to convert binary
(digital) data into an analogue form (electric current) that can then drive the loudspeaker.
• When current flows through the coil of wire that is wrapped around an iron core, the core becomes a temporary
electromagnet; a permanent magnet is also positioned very close to this electromagnet.
• As the current through the coil of wire varies, the induced magnetic field in the iron core also varies. This causes the
iron core to be attracted towards the permanent magnet and as the current varies this will cause the iron core to
vibrate.
• Since the iron core is attached to a cone, this causes the cone to vibrate, producing sound waves.
 SENSORS

• Sensors are input devices which read or measure physical properties from their surroundings. Ex- temperature, pressure, acidity
level and length.
• Real data is analogue in nature, this means it is constantly changing and doesn’t have a single discrete value. Therefore
analogue data needs some form of interpretation by the user, for ex, the temperature measurement on a mercury thermometer
requires the user to look at the height of the mercury column and use their best judgement (by looking at the scale) to find the
temperature. There are an infinite number of values depending on how precisely the height of the mercury column is measured.
• Computers cannot make any sense of these physical quantities so the data needs to be converted into a digital format. This is
done using ADC (analogue to digital converter). It converts physical values into discrete digital values.
• When a computer is used to control the devices such as motor or valve- DAC is required and actuators are used in such
applications. Sensors readings may cause the microcontroller to alter a valve or a motor that will then change the next reading
taken by the sensor. So the output from the microprocessor will impact on the next input received as it attempts to bring the
system within the desired parameters. This is known as feedback.
• Sensors send out constant values; they don’t suddenly send a reading when the parameter they are measuring changes. It is
the microprocessor they are giving the input to that will analyse the incoming data and take the necessary action. Refer table
3.8 for different sensors.
 SENSORS CONTD..

• Sensors are used in monitoring and control applications. Example of monitoring – Monitoring patient’s vitals,
monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system, ckecking temp in car engine or monitoring pollution levels.
Example of control- turning streetlights on at night and turning them off during daylight, controlling the temp in
central heating/aircon.
• Example of monitoring system: security systems- (refer fig 3.51) the system is activated by keying the password.
The infrared sensor will pick up the movement of an intruder in the building, the acoustic sensor will pick up the
sounds such as footsteps, the pressure sensor will pick up the weight of the intruder coming through a door.
• The sensor data is passed through an ADC if it is in analogue form to produce the digital data. The microprocessor
will sample the given data at regular intervals say 5 seconds and compare with the stored values by the computer.
If any of the incoming data values are outside the acceptable range, then the computer sends the signal
(siren/alarm/flashing). A DAC is required if the devices need analogue values to operate them. The alarm continues
until the system is reset with a password.
• Another ex on monitoring patients- refer book pg. 114.
 SENSORS CONTD..CONTROL APPLICATIONS

• Control of street lightning- the lamp is fitted with a light sensor which constantly sends data to the
microprocessor. The data value from the sensor changes according to whether it is sunny, cloudy,
raining or it is night time etc. the light sensor sends data to the ADC interface. This changes the data
into digital form and sends it to the microprocessor. The microprocessor samples the data every
minute.
• If the data from the sensor < value stored in memory, a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the
street lamp and the lamp is switched on. The lamp stays switched on for 30 minutes before the
sensor readings are sampled again. If the data from the sensor >= value stored in memory, a signal
is sent from the microprocessor to the strrt lamp, and the lamp is switched off. The lamp stays
switched off for 30 minutes before sensor readings are sampled again (this prevents the lamp
flickering off and on during heavy cloud cover).
• Anti-lock braking systems (on cars) – refer pg 115
 EXAMPLE- CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS

• A gas supply is used to heat water using a heater. A valve on the gas supply is controlled by a
microprocessor and is opened if the heating levels need to be increased. A water pump is used to
pump hot water around the central heating system whenever the temperature drops below a pre-set
value.
• WORKING- The required temperature is keyed in and this is stored in the microprocessor memory
(pre-set value). The temperature sensor is constantly sending data readings to the microprocessor.
The data from the sensor is sent to ADC and then to the microprocessor. The microprocessor
compares the data with the preset value.
• If the temp >= pre-set value, no action is taken. If temp < pre-set value, then a signal is sent, to an
actuator (via a DAC) to open the gas valve to the heater/ to turn on the water pump.
• The process continues until the central heating is switched off.
 CHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL

• A certain chemical process only works if the temp is above 70 deg and pH (acidity) level is less
than 3.5. sensors are used as part of the control system. A heater is used to heat the reactor and
valves are used to add acid when necessary to maintain the acidity.
• WORKING- Temperature and pH sensors read data from the chemical process. This data is
converted into digital using an ADC and is sent to the computer. The computer compares the
incoming data with pre-set values stored in memory.
• If the temp < 70 deg, a signal is sent to switch on the heater, if the temp >= 70 deg, a signal is
sent to switch off the heater. If the pH > 3.5, then a signal is sent to open a valve and acid is added
and if the pH <= 3.5, then a signal is sent to close the valve.
• the computer signals will be changed into analogue signal using DAC so that it can control the
heaters and valves. This continues as long as the computer system is activated.
 GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT CONTROL

• Five different sensors are used to control the greenhouse environment: humidity, moisture,
temperature, pH and light. Refer fig 3.54 on page 117.
• Because of the number of sensors, it is complex. Consider the humidity sensor only. This
sends a signal to an ADC, which then sends a digital signal to the computer. This compares
the input with stored (pre-set) values and decides what action needs to be taken.
• If humidity > pre-set value, the computer sends a signal to a DAC to operate the motors to
open windows thus reducing the humidity. If it is < pre-set value, the computer sends a signal
to open valves to spray water into the air. If reading = pre-set value, then no action is taken.
• The control process continues as long as the system is switched on. Similar arguments can be
used for all five sensors.
 DATA STORAGE

• Memory is referred to as the internal devices used to store data that the computer can access directly. This is known
as primary memory. This memory can be the user’s workspace, temporary data or data that is key to running the
computer.
• Storage devices allow users to store applications, data and files. The user’s data is stored permanently and they can
change it or read it as they wish. Storage needs to be larger than internal memory since the user may wish to store
large files. Storage devices can also be removable to allow data, to be transferred between computers. Removable
devices allow a user to store important data in a different location in case of data loss.
• However, all of this removable storage has become less important with the advent of technology such as ‘data drop’
and cloud storage.
• Memory and storage devices can be split up into two groups: Primary and Secondary memory.
• Primary memory is directly accessible by CPU and it contains RAM, ROM and Cache memory.
• Secondary memory is not directly accessible by CPU. All the devices are non-volatile. These devices can be external
or internal to the computer. Examples- HDD, SDD, DVD, memory stick etc.
 PRIMARY MEMORY

• Primary memory is directly accessible by CPU and it contains Random access memory and Read only memory chips. It allows
the CPU to access applications and services temporarily stored in memory locations. Refer fig 3.59.
• Random Access Memory (RAM): all computer systems come with some form of RAM. The word random refers to the fact that
any memory location in RAM can be accessed independent of which memory location was last used.
• When you un an application, data is retrieved from secondary storage and placed temporarily into RAM. Access time to
locate data is much faster in RAM than in secondary devices.
• Features of RAM: can be written to or read from, and the data can be changed by the user or the computer, used to store
data, files, part of an application or part of an operating system currently in use, it is volatile, means memory contents are
lost when powering off the computer.
• In general, the larger the size of the RAM, faster the computer will operate. In reality, RAM never runs out of memory; it
continues to operate, but just becomes slower and slower as more data is stored. As RAM becomes ‘full’, the CPU has to
continually access the secondary data storage devices to overwrite old data on RAM with new data. By increasing the RAM
size, the number of times this has to be done is considerably reduced; thus making the computer operate more quickly.
 TYPES OF RAM CONTD..

• Dynamic Ram (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM)

• Each DRAM chip consists of transistors and capacitors. Each of these parts is tiny since a
single RAM chip will contain millions of transistors and capacitors. Function of each part is:
• Capacitor- this holds the bits of information (0 or 1). Transistor- this acts like a switch; it allows
the chip control activity to read the capacitor or change the capacitor’s value.
• This type of RAM needs to be constantly refreshed (the capacitor needs to be re-charged every
15 microseconds otherwise it would lose its value). If it wasn’t refreshed, the capacitor’s
charge would leak away very quickly leaving every capacitor with the value 0.
• Advantages of DRAMs over SRAMs- they are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAM,
they consume less power then SRAM, they have a higher memory capacity than SRAM.
 STATIC RAM (SRAM)

• A major difference between SRAM and DRAM is that SRAM doesn’t need to be constantly
refreshed. It makes use of flip flops, which hold each bit of memory.
• SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data access (access time for SRAM is 25
nanoseconds and for DRAM is 60 nanoseconds). DRAM is the most common type of RAM
used in computers, but where absolute speed is essential, like in CPU’s memory cache,
SRAM is preferred technology. Memory cache is high speed portion of the memory; it is
effective because most programs access the same data or instructions many times. By
keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids having to
access the slower DRAM.
• Differences between SRAM and DRAM – refer table 3.9 on page 122.
 READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

• ROM is similar to RAM but the main difference is that it cannot be changed or written to. ROM chips have the following
features- they are non-volatile (the contents are not lost after powering off the computer); they are permanent
memories (the contents cannot be changed or written to by the user, the computer or any application); the contents
can only be read; they are often used to store data that the computer needs to access when powering up for the first
time (the basic input/output system (BIOS)- these are known as the start up instructions or bootstrap).
• Example of an application where both RAM and ROM chips are used: a remote-controlled toy car has circuitry which
contains both RAM and ROM chips. The remote control is a hand-held device. Role of RAM and ROM chips in this
application.
• ROM- storing the factory settings such as remote control frequencies. Storing the ‘start –up’ routines when the toy car is
first switched on, storing of the set routines; for example, how the buttons on the hand held device control turning left,
acceleration, stopping, and so on.
• RAM- the user may wish to program in their own routines; these new instructions would be stored in the RAM chip, the
RAM chip will store the data/instructions received from the remote control unit.
 SECONDARY AND OFF-LINE STORAGE

• It includes storage devices that are not directly addressable by the CPU.
• These are non-volatile devices that allow data to be stored as long as required by the user.
• Stored more data than primary memory, data access time is considerably longer than with
RAM or ROM.
• Applications, OS, devices drivers and general files are stored on secondary storage.
• These devices are divided into 3 categories according to the technology used
- magnetic
- solid state
- optical
 MAGNETIC STORAGE

• Hard Disk Drives (HDD)- most commonly used to store data in a computer, data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic
surfaces of the disks (also called platters). These platters can spin at about 7000 times a second. These platters are made
up of aluminium, ceramic material.
• Read and write heads consists of the electromagnets that are used to read data from or write data to the platters. A number
of read write heads can access all of the surfaces of the platters in the disk drive.
• Each platter has 2 surfaces that are used to store data. These read-write heads move very quickly- they move from the
centre of the disk to the edge of the disk (and back again) 50 times a second.
• Data is stored on the surface in sectors and tracks. A sector on a given track will contain a fixed number of bytes.
• HDD have very slow data access as compared to RAM. Many applications require the read-write heads to constantly look for
the correct blocks of data; this means large number of head movements.
• The effects of Latency (time that specific block of data on a data track takes to rotate around to the read-write head)
become very significant. Users sometimes see messages such as ‘Please wait’ or, ‘not responding’ due to the effect of
latency.
 MAGNETIC STORAGE (CONTD)

• When a file or data is stored on a HDD, the required number of sectors needed to store the
data will be allocated. These sectors may not adjacent to each other.
• Through time, there will be editing and deletions in the HDD that leads to the fragmentation
of the sectors and hence the performance of the HDD is deteriorated (that means longer
time is needed to access the data). Defragmentation software are used to ‘tidying up’ the
disk sectors.
• All the data in the sector is red in order/sequentially. Access to the sector will be by a direct
read/write head movement.
• REMOVABLE HDD are external to the computer that can be connected to the computer
using one of the USB ports. In this way, they can be used as a back- up device or another
way of transferring files between computers.
 SOLID STATE DRIVES (SSD)

• SSD remove the issue of latency considerably since they do not have moving parts and all the data is retrieved at the same
rate. They don’t rely on magnetic properties; the most common type of solid-state storage devices store data by controlling
the movement of electrons within NAND or NOR chips. The data is stored in 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors (at each
junction one transistor is called a floating gate and the other is called a control gate) within the chip. This produces a non-
volatile rewritable memory.
• Floating gate and control gate transistors- they use CMOS (complementary metal oxide semi-conductor) NAND
technology. Flash memories make use of a matrix; at each intersection on the matrix there is a floating gate and a control
gate arranged as shown in fig. 3.64.
• A dielectric coating separates the two transistors, which allows the floating gate transistor to retain its charge (which is why
the memory is non-volatile). The floating gate transistor has a value of 1 when it is charged and a value of 0 when it isn’t.
• To program one of these ‘intersection cells’ a voltage is applied to the control gate and electrons from the electron source
are attracted to it. But due to the dielectric coating, the electrons become trapped in the floating gate. Hence, we have
control over the bit value stored at each intersection. (after about 12 months, this charge can leak away, which is why a
solid-state device should be used at least once a year to be certain it will retain its memory.)
 SSD CONTINUED

• Main benefits of SSD over HDD- more reliable, considerably lighter, don’t have to ‘get up to
speed’ before they work properly, lower power consumption, run much cooler than HDDs
(this makes them suitable for laptops), they are very thin as they don’t have any moving
parts, data access is faster than HDD.
• The main drawback of SSD is the longevity of the technology. Most SSD are rated at only 20
GB of write operations per day over a three-year period- this is known as SSD endurance.
This is why SSD technology is still not used in all servers where huge number of write
operations take place every day. However, the durability of these solid-state systems is
being improved by several manufacturers and they are rapidly becoming more common in
applications such as servers and cloud storage devices.
• Note- it is not possible to over-write existing data on a flash memory device; it is necessary
to first erase the old data and then write the new data at the same location.
 MEMORY STICKS/ FLASH MEMORIES

• Memory sticks/flash memories (pen drives) use solid-state technology. They connect to the
computer through the USB port. Their main advantage is that they are very small,
lightweight devices, which make them suitable as a method for transferring files between
computers. They can also be used as small back-up devices for music or photo files.
• Complex or expensive software, such as financial planning software, often uses memory
sticks as a dongle. The dongle contains additional files that are needed to run the software.
Without this dongle, the s/w won’t work properly. It therefore prevents illegal or
unauthorized use of software, and also prevents copying of the software since, without the
dongle, it is useless.
 OPTICAL MEDIA

• CD/DVD disks- these are described as optical storage devices. Laser light is used to read and write data to and from the surface of the disk.
Both devices use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store the data. Refer fig. 3.65.
• Both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from the centre of the disk to the edge. When a disk spins, the optical head moves to the
point where the laser beam ‘contacts’ the disk surface and follows the spiral track from the centre outwards.
• As with a HDD, a CD/DVD is divided into sectors allowing direct access to data. Also, as in the case of HDD, the outer part of the disk runs
faster than the inner part of the disk.
• The data is stored in ‘pits’ and ‘lands’ on the spiral track. A red laser is used to read and write the data. CDs and DVDs can be designated
‘R’ (write only once) or ‘RW’ (can be written to or read from many times).
• One of the main difference between DVD technology and CD is that DVD has potential for dual-layering, which considerably increases the
storage capacity. This means there are 2 individual recording layers. Two layers of a standard DVD are joined together with a transparent
spacer, and a very thin reflector is also sandwiched between the two layers. Reading and writing of the second layer is done by a red laser
focusing at a fraction of a millimetre difference compared to the first layer.
• Standard, single layer DVDs have a larger storage capacity than CDs because the ‘pit’ size and track width are both smaller. This means
that more data can be stored on the DVD surface. DVDs use lasers with a wavelength of 650 nanometres, CDs use lasers with a
wavelength of 780 nanometres. The shorter the wavelength of the laser light, the greater the storage capacity of the medium.
 BLU-RAY DISCS

• Blu-ray discs are another example of optical storage media. They are different from DVDs in their
construction and in the way they carry out read-write operations. (note- it is called blu-ray rather than
Blue-ray as it was impossible to copyright the work ‘Blue’).
• Main differences between DVD and Blu-ray: - a blue laser, rather than a red laser is used to carry out
read and write operations. – using blue laser light means that the ‘pits’ and ‘lands’ can be much smaller;
hence they can store up to 5 times more data than normal DVD. – single-layer Blu-ray discs use a 1.2mm
thick polycarbonate disk; however, dual-layer Blu-ray and normal DVDs use a sandwich of two 0.6mm
thick disks. - Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system that helps to prevent
piracy and copyright infringement. – the data transfer rate for a DVD is 10 Mbps and for a Blu-ray disc it
is 36 Mbps.
• Since blu-ray discs can come in single layer or dual-layer format (unlike DVD, which is always dual-layer),
there is difference in capacity and interactivity of the two technologies. Refer pg 127.
 VIRTUAL MEMORY

• One of the problems associated with memory management is when processes run out of the RAM. If the amount of available
RAM is exceeded due to multiple programs running, it may cause system to crash. This can be solved by utilizing the hard
disk drive (or SSD) if we need more memory. This is the basis behind Virtual memory. RAM is the physical memory, while
virtual memory is RAM + swap space on the hard disk or SSD. To execute a program, data is loaded into memory from HDD
(or SSD) whenever required.
• Refer pg 128 and 129 for the difference between the normal memory management and virtual memory management.
• Virtual memory gives the illusion of unlimited memory being available. Even though RAM is full, data can be moved in and out
of the HDD/SSD to give the illusion that there is still memory available.
• In operating systems, paging is also used by memory management to store and retrieve data from HDD/SSD and copy it into
RAM. A page is a fixed-length contiguous block of data utilised in virtual memory systems. This is a key part of how virtual
memory works allowing data blocks to be moved in and out of a HDD/SSD. Accessing data in virtual memory is slower, so
larger the RAM the faster the CPU can operate. This is one of the benefits of increasing RAM size as far as possible.
• Main benefits of virtual memory- programs larger than physical memory can be executed, - there is no need to waste memory
with data that isn’t being used, - it reduces the need to buy and install more expensive RAM memory.
 VIRTUAL MEMORY- CONTD

• Main drawback of using virtual memory is disk thrashing. As main memory fills, more and
more data needs to be swapped in and out of virtual memory leading to a very high rate of
hard disk read/write head movements; this is called trashing.
• If more and more time is spent on moving data in and out of memory than doing any
processing, then the processing speed of the computer will be considerably reduced. A
point can be reached when the execution of a process comes to a halt since the system is
so busy moving data in and out of memory rather than doing any actual execution- this is
known as thrash point.
• Due to large numbers of head movements, this can also lead to premature failure of a HDD.
Thrashing can be reduced by installing more RAM, reducing the number of programs
running at a time or reducing the size of the swap file. Another way of reducing this
problem is to make use of SSD rather than HDD.
 CLOUD STORAGE

• Public and private cloud computing- cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on remote
servers. The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to
access data at any time. This is known as data redundancy. The physical environment is owned and managed by
a hosting company and may include hundreds of servers in many locations.
• There are three common systems:

- public cloud: a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud storage provider are different
companies.
- private cloud: this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single entity.
- Hybrid cloud: this is a combination of the two above environments; some data resides in the private cloud and
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a public cloud storage provider.
Instead of saving data on a local hard disk or other storage device, a user can save their data ‘in the cloud’. For
benefits and drawbacks of the cloud storage refer to pg. 131.
 DATA SECURITY CONCERNS WHEN USING
CLOUD STORAGE
• Companies that transfer vast amount of confidential data from their own systems to a
cloud service provider are effectively relinquishing control of their own data security. This
raises quite a few concerns:
• What physical security exists regarding the building where the data is housed?
• How good is the cloud service provider’s resistance to natural disasters or power cuts?
• What safeguards exist regarding personnel who work for the cloud service company; can
they use their authorization codes to access confidential data for monetary purposes?
• DATA LOSS WHEN USING CLOUD STORAGE- important and irreplaceable data could be lost
from the cloud storage facilities. Hackers can access the accounts and this could lead to
loss or corruption of data.
SECURITY BREACHES

• The XEN security threat, which forced several cloud operators to reboot all their cloud
servers, was caused by a problem in the XEN hypervisor (a hypervisor is a piece of
computer software, or hardware that creates and runs virtual machines).
• A large cloud service provider permanently lost data during a routine back-up procedure.
• The celebrity photos hacking scandal, in which more than 100 private photos of
celebrities were leaked by hackers on social networks/sold them to publishing companies.
• In 2016, the National Electoral Institute of Mexico suffered a cloud security breach in
which 93 million voter registrations, stored on a central database were compromised and
became publicly available to everyone.
NETWORK HARDWARE

• NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)- it allows a device to connect to a

network/internet. It contains Media Access Control (MAC) address
generated at the manufacturing stage.
• Wireless network interface cards/controllers (WNICs) are the same as
NICs in that they are used to connect devices to the internet or other
networks. However, they use wireless connectivity utilising an antenna
to communicate with networks via microwaves. They would normally
plug into the USB port or be part of an internal IC.
MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC)

• It is made up of 48 bits which are 6 groups of hexadecimal digits with the general format:
NN – NN – NN – DD – DD - DD
Example- 00-1C-B3-4F-25-FF. First six hexadecimal digits are manufacturer’s code (Apple) and
the next six are device serial number which is unique. If NIC card is replaced, the MAC address
will also change.
TYPES OF MAC ADDRESS- Two types-
Universally administered MAC address (UAA) and Locally administered MAC address (LAA)
The UAA is by far the most common type of MAC address and this is the one set by the
manufacturer at the factory. It is rare for a user to want to change this MAC address. However,
sometime a user/organisation wishes to change this MAC address.
WHY MAC ADDRESS NEEDS TO BE CHANGED
USING LAA
• Certain software used on mainframe systems need all the MAC addresses of
devices to fall into a strict format; because of this, it may be necessary to
change the MAC address of some devices to ensure they follow the correct
format.
• It may be necessary to bypass a MAC address filter on a router or a firewall; only
MAC addresses with a certain format are allowed through, otherwise the devices
will be blocked if their MAC address doesn’t adhere to the correct format.
• To get past certain types of network restrictions it may be necessary to emulate
unrestricted MAC addresses; hence it may require the MAC address to be
changed on certain devices connected to the network.
 INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)

• When a device connects to a private network, a router assigns a private IP address to it. That IP address is unique on that
network, but might be the same as an IP address on a separate network. However, when a router connects to the internet it is
given a unique public IP address. This is usually supplied by ISP. No other device on the internet has the same public IP address.
• All the devices connected to that routerhave the same public IP address as the router but each have their own different private
IP addresses on that network. Because the operation of the internet is based on a set of protocols, it is necessary to supply an IP
address.
• There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the address is written as four groups of 8 bits, example,
234.45.56.33
• Using 32 bits reduces the potential number of devices and routers used on the internet at any one time, a newer version called
IPv6 is now used. This uses 128-bit addresses that take the form of 8 groups of hex digits. Example,
• A8FB:7A88:0FFF:FFF0:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
• It has been designed to allow the internet to grow in terms of the number of hosts and potential increase in the amount of data
traffic.
ADVANTAGES OF IPV6 COMPARED TO IPV4

• Removes the risk of IP address collisions.

• Has built-in authentication checks.
• Allows for more efficient packet routes.
• Refer pg 134, table 3.13 for comparison between MAC addresses and IP
addresses.
 STATIC AND DYNAMIC IP ADDRESSES

• IP addresses can be either static (don’t change) or dynamic (change every time a device connects to the internet).
• Static – Static IP addresses are permanently assigned to a device by the internet service provider (ISP); they don’t
change each time a device logs onto the internet. Static IP addresses are usually assigned to:
- remote servers which are hosting a website
- an online database
- a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server. FTP servers are used when files need to be transferred to various computers
throughout the network.
• Dynamic- these are assigned by the ISP each time a device logs onto the internet. This is done by Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP). A computer on the internet, configured as a DHCP server, is used by the ISP to
automatically assign an IP address to a device. As the name suggests, a dynamic IP address could be different
every time a device connects to the internet.
• Comparison of static and dynamic IP processes-refer table 3.14, pg 136.
 ROUTERS

• Routers enable data packets to be routed between different networks, for example, to join a LAN or WAN. The
router takes data transmitted in one format from a network (which is using a particular protocol) and converts the
data to a protocol and format understood by another network, thereby allowing them to communicate.
• A router have an internet cable plugged into it and several cables connecting to computers and other devices to
the LAN.
• Broadband routers sit behind the firewall. The firewall protects the computers on a network. The router’s main
function is to transmit internet and transmission protocols between two network and also allow private networks to
be connected together.
• Routers inspect the data package sent to it to any computer on any of the networks connected to it. Since every
computer on the same network has the same part of the internet protocol (IP) address, the router is able to send
the data packet to the appropriate switch, and the data will then be delivered to the correct device using the MAC
destination address. If the MAC address doesn’t match any device connected to the switch, it passes on to another
switch on the same network until the appropriate device is found. Routers can be wired or wireless devices.