Chapter-1

Computer Fundamentals

By: Mr. Birbal Jat

PGT-Computer Sc.
Kendriya Vidyalaya No 3 Jaipur
COMPUTER MEANS
C : Commonly
O : Operator
M : Machine
P: Particular
U: User
T : Trade
E : Education
R: Research
The First in Computer World
 World’s first electronic digital computer- ENIAC.
 India’s first built digital computer-SIDHARTH Made by ECI.
 India’s first built super computer-PARAM Made by C-DAC.
 First computer was established in main post office of Bangalore on 16 Aug 1986.
 First computerized Post office – New Delhi.
 PRADESH is computer language for Hindi Commands.
 In 1971 census – IBM1401 computer was used in India.
 Dr. Raj Reddy is the first Indian who get Ph.Ed. in computer Science.
 SYSTMAIL is email service for Indian languages, provided by C-DAC.
 MONTRA ONLINE- India’s first international internet service.
 SIKKIM is the first state where telephone directly is available on internet.
 “dEI;wVj lapkj lwpuk “%& ns’k dh igyh dEI;wVj Kku
ij vk/kkfjr ekfld if=dk
COMPUTER- AN INTRODUCTION
 Computer is an electronic machine which calculates data very fast and
provides results accurately. It is considered that when we provide accurate
inputs in the computer, it provides 100% accurate outputs.
 COMPUTER SYSTEM: It is set of hardware and software devices which are
connected to each other to solve a specific problem.
DEVICES: Monitor, keyboard, Mouse, Printer etc.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE is a set of physical and magnetic devices which are
used to make computers. We can see and touch these peripherals.
Example: The outside border of a computer system.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE is a set of programs which are written in computer
languages i.e. machine, binary. These are used to work on computer
system. These provide instructions to various parts of a computer system.
Example: Windows 98.
 COMPUTER FIRMWARE is a combinatin of S/w & H/w. Computer Chips that have data
recorded on them.
Example: iPod, Bluetooth, iBook
 LIVEWAREi : is the term used for the people associated with and benefited from the computer
system. Example: getting feedback from users.
Characteristics of Computers
Advantages:
 Speed: Computers are much faster as compared to human beings. A computer
can perform a task in a minute that may take days if performed manually.
 Accuracy : Computers can perform all the calculations and comparisons
accurately.
 High Storage: Computers can store a large amount of information in very
small space.
 Reliability: Computers are immune (unaffected) to tiredness and boredom
(dullness) or fatigue (weakness). Thus they are more reliable than human beings.
 Versatility : Computers can perform repetitive jobs efficiently. They can work
with different types of data and information like graphic, audio, visual, characters
etc.
Disadvantage:
 Lack of Decision Making Power: Computers cannot decide on their own.
They do not have this power which is a great asset of human beings.
 IQ Zero: Computers are dumb machines with zero IQ. They need to be told
each and every step.
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

Year Device Invento Description

r
3000 BC ABACUS China The first mechanical calculating
device in the history of computer.
1600 Arabic math China (1234567890) numbers are
began to used in counting.
1614 Logarithm John Used in calculating big numbers.
Napier
1642 Mechanical Blasé Used o add two numbers
Calculator or Pascal
Pascaline
1673 Advanced Gottfried Used to perform addition,
Pascaline Wilhelm subtractions, multiplication,
division.
1801 Jacquard’s Joseph M. Used to store information based
Loom Jacquard’ on principle of Punch cards.
s
1812 Differential Charles I/O unit, Calculation Unit, Memory
Engine Babbage Unit
NOTE: CHARLES BABBAGE IS CALLED FATHER OF COMPUTER BECAUSE HE WAS THE FIRST PERSON WHO IMAGINE ABOUT
1816 PROGRAMAnalytical
STORED CONCEPT. Charles Advanced version of Differential
Engine Babbage Engine. Now it can do 60
additions in one minute.
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER
Year Device Inventor Description
1872 Calculator Frank Boldwin Used for normal calculation
1890 Electro Card Herman Hollerith Punch cards used in first electro
Card Machine
1908 Parallel James Power Used to store data
Punching
Machine
1910 Tabulator Herman Hollerith Used in census of America
Machine
1942 Mechanical Venever Bush Work on physical values as
Analog temperature, Pressure, Current
Computer etc. instead of digits.
1944 Electrical Venever Bush Used in chemical plants,
Analog petroleum refineries, aircraft
Computer and electronic power plants.
1945 Digital Turing The First digital Computer
Computer
1946 ENIAC J.P. Eckert and John The first electronic digital
Mauchly Computer stands for
(Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator)
1947 EDVAC Von Newman It stands for (Electronic
 Functional Components of Computer

 Input Unit:
◦ It reads the data from the outside world.
◦ It converts these data in computer acceptable form.
◦ It supplies the converted data to the computer system for further
processing.
◦ Computer uses input unit for data entry and instructions feeding
purposes. Some of the input devices are keyboard, mouse, MICR,
OCR, OMR, Scanner, joystick , light pen, bar code reader etc.
 CPU (Central Processing Unit):
◦ It consists of ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) , CU (Control Unit) and Memory
Unit.
◦ It is also called the heart of the computer. It directs the operation of the
I/O devices.
 Output Unit:
◦ It accepts result produced by the computer.
◦ It converts these data in human acceptable form.
◦ It supplies the converted data to the outside world.
◦ The result given by the computer is called output . It can be obtained on
output devices like monitor, printer, plotter etc.
 Computer Generations
Base I Gen. II Gen. III Gen. IV Gen. V Gen.

Period 1947-58 1959-64 1965-75 1976-90 1991-

2001
Electronic Vacuum Transistor Integrated LS -IC VLS-IC
Componen Tubes Circuits (IC)
t
Access Milliseconds Microsecond Nanosecond Nanosecond Nanosecon
Time ( d

Memory 20 KB 128KB 1MB 16MB 256MB

(Min.)
Speed 300 IPS 300 IPS 1 MIPS 8 MIPS 100 MIPS

Languages Machine BASIC,COBOL FORTRAN C & C++, Java,

ADA dotNet
Storage Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic Semi- Optical
Device Drum Tape Core conductor

Examples IBM 650 IBM 704 IBM IBM 3081 CRAY-IV

ENIAC ICT 1300 360,1401 SPECTRA-70 INTEL P I-IV
EDSAC, ICL 1900 CRAY-I PARAM
EDVAC
Classification of
Computers
On the On the On the
Basis of basis of basis of
Purpose Application Size
• General • Analog • Micro
• Special • Digital • Mini
• Hybrid • Mainframe
• Super

Note:
General computers are used for ordinary tasks like banking , pay-roll systems.
Special computers are used for specific task like space research, weather
forecasting, traffic control etc.
Analog computers work on physical values and transmits signal constantly.
Example – Petrol Pump where analog computer displays quantity & price of Petrol.
Digital Computers work only on binary digits and transmit signals discretely
(isolated).
Hybrid computer is combination of both analog & digital computers. These
are very costly and mainly used in hospitals to measures the BP/Temp/ other
symptoms of Patients.
 Comparison of Computer based on
Size
Type RAM HDD Word- Speed OS Usage Exampl
s (Min.) (Min.) length (Min) e

Micro 8-64 MB 10-100 8-32 bit 100 Windows Home Intel

GB MIPS Pentium
Mini 64- 100- 32-64 bit 200MIPS Windows Bank IBM
128MB 200GB , Unix 6000
PDP-8
Main 128- 200-500 64-128 500 Windows Railway IBM
Fram 256MB GB bit MIPS , Linux 4300
e HP
9000
Supe 256- 500- 128-256 1000 Unix, Researc CRAY,
r 1024MB 1000 GB bit MIPS Mac h& HITAC,
aircraft CYBER
PARAM was India’s first super computer built by C-DAC Pune in 205,
guidance of Dr. Vijay P. Bhatnagar & Team. PARAM
PARAM 10000 is the latest version of PARAM which provides weather
report of one day within 01 minute and is the largest super computer of
Asia.
PACE (Processor for Aerodynamic Computation and Evaluation)was another
Indian super computer produced by ANURAG (Advanced Numerical
Research & Analysis Group)
 Other Computer Types
 In recent years, design changes have reduced the size of micro
computers, making computer technology portable and affordable.
 Laptop computers are roughly the size of a large notebook.
 PC (Personal Computer) defines a computer designed for general use
by a single person.
 Desktop : PC that is not designed for portability.
 Palmtop: also known as PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) that use
flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage.
 Workstation: a desktop computer that has a more powerful
processor and additional memory, such as 3D graphics or game
development.
 Server: A computer that has been optimized to provide services to
other computers over a network.
 Client: A computer that sends request for some information to the
Server over a network.
 Wearable: The latest trend in computing is wearable computers,
which have applications like (e-mail, multimedia) etc.
Ex.- cell phones,
 Computer Software
System Software Application Software

Operating System
Word Processing

Utilities
Spreadsheets

Language Processor

DBMS
Assembler

Compiler Graphics

Interpreter

Browsers
 Operating System
 OS is a set of programs that operates all activities of
computer system. An OS is prepared to increase the
efficiency of computer system. It is a link between user
and hardware.
 Functions of Operating System:

◦ Memory Management: decides where and How files will be

stored in memory.
◦ Processor Management: Provides various tasks to CPU.
◦ I/O Management: Performs various I/O functions.
◦ File Management: Transfers and arranging of files.
◦ Communication: provides communication between user
and Screen.
◦ Internal time Control: operates internal system clock.
Memory Management
The different types of policies & techniques for memory management
are:
◦ Single Contiguous Allocation: it is the simplest allocation
technique. But has the poor usage of Processor and main
memory.
◦ Partitioned Allocation: it allows more than one job in the main
memory at one time. But increases the complexity of the OS. It
is the simplest for supporting the multiprogramming.
◦ Paged Memory Allocation: In this each job is divided into pieces
of the same size, called pages. The physical memory is divided
into pieces of same size called blocks. Any page can be placed
into any block. This scheme eliminates fragmentation and
increases memory and processor utilization. But it slow down
the processor and increases cost of system.
◦ Demand Paged Allocation: When a page is needed in main
memory, the page which are loaded on demand, are present on
Hard Disk. This is known as Demand Paged Allocation. It is
beneficial when we have large virtual memory and some times it
makes processor overloaded.
Process Management
 We know that program is a set of instructions written in a programming
language.
 Process is a state of a program in execution. Or process is running
program with some specific tasks to do.
 A program is a passive entity whereas a process is an active entity.
 When OS creates and kills processes it is called Process Tree.
 The life time of a process can be divided in to 5 states:
◦ New: The process has been created.
◦ Ready: The process is waiting to be allocated to a processor.
◦ Running : Instructions are being executed. When a process gets a control from
CPU , it starts executing.
◦ Suspended : A suspended process lacks some resource other than the CPU.
Such processes are normally not considered for execution until the related
suspending conditions is fulfilled.
◦ Terminate: When the Process finally stops. A process terminates when it finishes
executing its last statement.
 The OS groups all information that it needs about a particular process
into a data structure called PCB (Process Control Block)
 It contains Process No., Priority No., Process State and Program Counter.
 Process Scheduling
 Scheduling refers to a set of techniques supported by
operating system that controls the order in which the
work to be done is completed.
 The main objective of scheduling is to increase CPU
utilization and performance.
 We have to use some performance criteria to maximize
the system performance . These are:
◦ Throughput: it is measure of amount of work completed in a given
time interval. Higher throughput means better system
performance. It can be calculated by using the formula  The no of
jobs completed / Total time to complete the jobs
◦ Time slice / Time Quantum : a small unit of time (in milliseconds)
given to a process by CPU.
◦ Turnaround Time: It is the delay between job submission and job
completion.
◦ Waiting Time: It may be expressed as turnaround time, less than
the actual processing time.
 Types of Scheduling
 Non-Pre-emptive : In this Scheduling , Scheduled job
always completes before another scheduling decision
is made. Therefore, finishing order of the jobs is also
same as their scheduling order. The following
Techniques use Non-Pre-emptive Scheduling:
◦ FCFS (First Come First Served)
◦ SJF (Shortest Job First) or SJN (Shortest Job Next)
◦ Deadline Scheduling
 Pre-emptive Scheduling: In this a Scheduling decision
can be made even while the job is executing . It is
more useful in high priority, which requires immediate
response. The following Techniques use Pre-emptive
Scheduling:
◦ Round Robin Scheduling
◦ Response Ratio Scheduling
Scheduling Techniques
 FCFS(First Come First Serve): This is the simplest scheduling
technique which is managed by FIFO (First In First Out) queue. i.e.
The Process which requests the CPU first, is allocated the CPU First.
◦ The CPU executes the jobs in the ready queue one by one.
◦ Batch Processing is one obvious example of FCFS Technique in which all jobs in the
batch are executed one by one. But Turnaround time for the very first job in the
batch is the best and for the very last job it is worst.
 SJF/SJN : In this technique, whenever a new job is to be admitted,
the shortest of the arrived jobs is selected and given the CPU time.
Throughput remains the same as in FCFS scheduling but waiting
time improves. SJN associates with each job the length of its next
CPU burst. (CPU burst is the CPU time required by a job to execute its
continuous executable part.)
 DEADLINE : In deadline scheduling the job with earliest deadline is
selected for scheduling. Deadline of a job is the time limit within
which a job must be over. If a job overshoots its deadline, it is said
to be Deadline over run. Deadline over run is calculated as K=C-D
where K is Deadline overrun ; C is job completion time and D is
Deadline for a job.
Scheduling Techniques…
 ROUND ROBIN : Round Robin (RR) Scheduling is aimed
at giving all programs equal opportunity to make
progress. This is implemented by ensuring that no
program gets a second opportunity to execute unless all
other programs have had at least one opportunity.
◦ A small unit of time, called a time quantum or time slice, is
defined. The ready queue (queue of programs waiting for CPU
time )is treated as a circular queue. The programs in the ready
queue are processed for the defined time slice, one by one.
 RESPONSE RATIO : Response Ratio is calculated as follows
Response Ratio =Elapsed
time / Execution time received
The job with highest response ratio is preferred over
others. When a short job arrives, its response ratio is
high, it is scheduled for execution immediately. A longer
job would achieve high enough ratio only after a
subsequent wait.
 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMs
 SINGLE USER: Single user operating system is a type of
operating system which allows only one user at a time.
◦ The most popular single user OS is MS DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System).
 MULTIPROCESSING : In this OS two or more independent
Processors are linked together in a coordinated system and the
instructions are executed simultaneously.
◦ It is used for major control applications like Rail , Road and Airways.
 MULTIPROGRAMMING: In this OS more than one user
programs are executed at the same time. It increases the resource
utilization of CPU.
◦ It is used to support multiple interactive tasks simultaneously.

Some Popular Operating Systems:

MSDOS, UNIX,WINDOWS , LINUX. Mac, BOSS, Solaris…
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMs
 Time Sharing: This OS operates in an interactive mode with a
quick response time. The user sends a request and the OS processes
it and a response is displayed.
 Real Time: In this OS the jobs have fixed deadlines and the jobs
have to be completed within their deadlines. It is used in Airlines
booking, Wholesale market and manufacturing to see the current
status.
 Distributed : In this OS , the user can access remote resources in
same manner as they do local resources. Data and process migration
from one site to another is under the control of this OS.
◦ It is used for Resource Sharing, Load Sharing, Reliability and
Communications.
 Network OS: it is used to support networking and servers. It
provides file sharing , print sharing, backup of data etc.
◦ Example : Windows NT server, Windows 9x, OS/2 and Macintosh
Internal Parts of Computer
 Microprocessor: is a computer processor on a microchip
made of silicon metal. It is sometimes called a logic chip.
Intel 4004 was the first Microprocessor. It has four major
components like:
◦ Control Unit : it controls all the functions like input ,
output , storage and process.
◦ Arithmetic Logic Unit: it is capable to perform
addition ,subtraction, multiplication, division as well as
comparisons.
◦ Register: it is a special temporary storage location within
the CPU. To execute an instruction , the CU retrieves it
from main memory and places it into a register.
◦ BUS: it refers to an electrical pathway through which bits
are transferred between the various computer
components. Or we can say a bus is a collection of wires
over which the computer sends information.
 Internal Parts of
Computer…
 Clock Speed: it refers to the no. of pulses per second generated
by an oscillator (Alternator). Usually it is measured in MHz (Megahertz
pulses per second).
 Processor: is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the
basic instructions that drive a computer. These have 8 to 64 bit
word lengths. These are divided in two categories: RISC & CISC.

RISC CISC
Reduced Instruction Set Complex Instruction Set
Computer Computer
All HLL support is done in All HLL support is done in
Software Hardware
Simple , Single-Cycle Large and Varied instructions
Instructions set that perform set that perform simple and
only basic functions complex tasks
Direct execution control unit A microcode control unit
Spend more transistors on Spend fewer transistors on
registers registers
Internal Parts of
Computer…
 System Bus: it carries bits between CPU and
only one peripheral at a time. There are three
main buses:
◦ Data Bus: it is an electrical path that carries 32 bits of
data at once between CPU and Memory and vice versa.
◦ Address Bus: it carries 32 bits memory address to
read/ write from Memory to CPU.
◦ Control Bus: it carries signals created by processor and
other devices.
 PCI ( Peripheral Component Interconnect) is a data bus standard
developed by Intel Corporation. It is a 64 bit bus with 66 MHz
speed. We can add various devices through it.
 EISA ( Extended Industry Standard Architecture) is also a data bus
standard developed by Compaq. It is a 32 bit bus and useful for
multiprocessing and multitasking. It is expensive but has better
data transfer rate.
 Various Registers:
Register Functions
Accumulator To store numbers and arithmetic calculations
Program To store the address of the instructions which has to be
Counter executed next.

Decoder To decode and interpret the instructions given to computer

through input.

Memory To contain the address of a word currently required and to fetch

Address next instruction.
Register (MAR)

Memory Buffer To store a word as it is read from memory and to place the
Register (MBR) instructions in MAR.

Instruction To handle instruction and data at a speed about 10 times faster

Register than other registers and to generate the required signals.
 INPUT DEVICES
Device-Name Usage
Keyboard The main input device that is used to enter data into computer. It
has 104 keys.
Mouse A handheld pointing device that controls curser position on the
screen.
OCR Optical Character Reader is a input device used to read
handwritten and printed documents.
OMR / ORS Optical Mark Recognition is used to scan a printed form and
reads predefined positions of records. ORS (Optical Response Sheet)
MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is used to read special
symbols printed on a cheque in the banks.
Light Pen It is used to draw lines or curve on the screen. Mostly used for
graphics works.
Joystick Just like a mouse, mostly used for computer games
New Devices Now a days, the following input devices are mostly used :- smart
card, bar code readers, Bio-metric sensors, Graphic Tablets and
scanners.
Output Devices
Device- Usage
Name
Monitor The main output device which displays information on
screen. Also known as LCD,CRT, VDU , TFT, Monochrome. It
many adapters that decides the picture quality based on
resolution and pixels. SVGA (Super Visual Graphics
Adapter) with 640x480 (640 pixel and 480 rows), 256 colors

Printer It prints an output on paper. Also known as hardcopy.

These are of two types: (i) impact (ii) Non-Impact.

Impact The impact printers work like electronic typewriter in

which a key is pressed to take impress of Ink on Paper.
Example: DMP, Line Printer ,Drum Printer , Daisy Wheel etc.

Non-impact While in a Non-impact there is no need of pressing key to

take impression of Ink. It use photo sensitive technology.
Example: Inkjet, Laser

Plotters Used to print big pictures or maps of buildings, master

plans and to create 2-D/3-D graphs.
 Memory
Introduction: After CPU, memory is the most
important part. Memory is the place where data &
instructions are stored.
Types of Memory:
◦ Primary (Main) Memory
◦ Secondary (Auxiliary) Memory
◦ Cache Memory
 Primary Memory is the internal part of computer. Data
& instructions are stored on electronic circuits. It is also
called semi-conductor memory. It can be of two types:
◦ RAM (Random Access Memory)
◦ ROM (Read Only Memory)
 RAM v/s ROM
Random Access Memory Read Only Memory
It is a temporary memory. It is a permanent memory
We can read & write data in it. Information can be only read in it.
It is a volatile memory because when It is Non-Volatile. So information
power is off, the data are lost. remains safe even when power is off.

Operating System is loaded in it at The information is written at the time of

booting time. manufacturing by the programmers

Transistors & capacitors are the main The user cannot change the programs
part of RAM. of ROM.

Data are kept in Row & Columns in it. It is also used in automatic washing
machine & toys.

Static ,Dynamic, DDR are types of it. PROM,EPROM,EEPROM are types of it.
 Types of RAM
 Static RAM: (SRAM)  Dynamic RAM: (DRAM)

◦ Data are stored ◦ Data are transferred like

permanently. electronic current.
◦ Expensive but fast. ◦ Data are kept in micro-
capacitors.
◦ Useful in multi-media.
◦ Refresh is essential otherwise
◦ No need of refreshing.
data will be destroyed after
◦ Used in cache memory & PC. sometime.

 EDO RAM: (Extended Data Out)  SD RAM: (Synchronous DRAM)

◦ Advance form of DRAM ◦ Faster than EDO RAM
◦ Used in Pentium-I PCs ◦ Used in Pentium-II & III PCs
◦ Faster than DRAM. ◦ Increased access speed in MHz

 RDRAM (Rambus DRAM): is the high speed memory but very expensive.
 DDR RAM (Double Data Rate RAM): is the latest memory used in recent PCs.
 Types of ROM
• PROM: • EPROM:  EEPROM:
– Programmable ROM – Erasable PROM ◦ Electrically Erasable
– User can store – Information can be PROM
programs only once. removed by ultra ◦ Information can be
– User can make micro violet rays. removed by electric
code program can be – Information can be signals.
made that are re-write after ◦ It is the simplest way
needed mostly. removing previous to store info in ROM.
– The process of information. ◦ Now it is used to store
making program in – It is cheaper than BIOS in Memory.
PROM is called PROM because it is
◦ Example :Pen Drive
‘Burning’. re-useable.
– Example: CD-R – Example: CD(RW)

Cache Memory: is a semi-conductor (buffer)memory which lies between main

memory and processor. It is mainly used for increasing the speed of RAM.
 Secondary Storage Devices
Devices Usage
Magnetic Disk It offers high storage capacity, reliability and the capacity to directly
access stored data.
Floppy Disk These are quite cheap and allow to copy files from one computer to
another. Available in different size : 8-inch,5.25- inch and 3.5-inch. But have a
limited capacity.
Hard Disk It is a disk storage device having very large capacity in GB with a
mechanism for reading & writing to the hard disk.
It is divided in to Tracks , Cylinders and Sectors.
Optical Disks The following optical disks are available in markets which are mostly
used to store, record and play multimedia files.
CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
DVD (Digital Versatile/Video Disk) ; Blue Ray Disk
WORM (Write Once Read Many) also called CD-R.
Zip Drive It is a great replacement of Floppies. These are expensive and
come with USB interface. These are portable , fast and easy to use.
Pen Drive/Flash Memory It is a memory chip that is portable, fast and easy to use and. Also
known as removable disk. Mostly used for storing and transferring
data from one computer to another.
Bluetooth It is a short range wireless technology used for connecting and
transferring data between two devices.
 Various Ports of Computers
Ports Usage
Serial Port Generally, in a motherboard there are two serial ports. One serial port is for a
serial mouse and another is for external modem.

Parallel Port It a connector through which a computer communicates with impact Printers.
Almost all motherboard provide one parallel port.

USB Port Universal Serial Bus- is a bus standard becoming more common everyday.
Now-a-days almost devices are connected through these ports.

PS-2 Port It is mostly used to connect keyboard, mouse, trackball and touch pad.

SCSI Port It is a High Density 30- pin connector set on a motherboard, used to connect
external hard disk or a removable disk.

Infrared Port It is a wireless technology used to connect a computer and a device to

communicate each other. For this a IR adapter and Software installation
required.
Example: Wireless Keyboard/mouse.
 Terms used in Computers
 Buffer: it is a temporary storage area. A buffer will take information
from one device and hold it until another device is ready to receive it.
 Spooling: The collection of information from several sources at one
point, followed by orderly delivery of that information to the device.
E.g. a printer .
 Access Time: is the time from the start of one storage device
access to the time when the next access can be started.
 Seek Time: is the time to position the head on a specific track on a
fixed head disks. It is the time taken by electronic circuit to select the
required head.
 Latency Time: The time required by a sector t reach below the
R/W head. On an average.
 Heatsink: is a device that is attached to a microprocessor chip to
keep it from overheating by absorbing its heat and dissipating
(dissolve) it into the air. There are two types of heatsink.
(i) Active heatsink that comes with a Fan.
(ii) (ii) Passive heatsink that comes without fan.