DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.

The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is

agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices

via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Components of a data communication system

 DATA FLOW
(SIMPLEX,
HALF-
DUPLEX, AND
FULL-DUPLEX
 A network is a set of devices
(often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication
NETWOR links.

KS A node can be a computer,

1. NETWORKS printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or
CRITERIA
receiving data generated by
2. PHYSICAL other nodes on the network.
STRUCTURE
3. CATEGORIES A link can be a cable, air,
OF NETWORK optical fiber, or any medium
which can transport a signal
carrying information.
Network Criteria

Performance
 Depends on Network Elements
 Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput

Reliability
 Failure rate of network components
 Measured in terms of availability/robustness

Security
 Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
 Errors
 Malicious users
Physical Structures
Type of Connection
 Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
 Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

Physical Topology
 Connection of devices
 Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Categories of
topology
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
Categories of Networks

Local Area Networks (LANs)

 Short distances
 Designed to provide local
interconnectivity

Metropolitan Area Networks

(MANs)
 Provide connectivity over areas such
as a city, a campus

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

 Long distances
 Provide connectivity over large
areas
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the
way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Organization of the Internet

Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
Hierarchical organization of the Internet

NAP (Network Access Point)

DATA
&
SIGNALS
 Analog and Digital

TO BE TRANSMITTED, DATA
MUST BE
TRANSFORMED TO
ELECTROMAGNETIC SIGNALS

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog

data refers to information that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has
discrete states. Analog data take on continuous
values. Digital data take on discrete values.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
SIGNALS
•Signals can be analog or digital.
•Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range.
•Digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
PERIODIC AND
NON-PERIODIC
SIGNALS
A signal which repeats itself after a specific interval of
time is called periodic signal.
A signal that does not repeats its pattern over a period
is called aperiodic signal or non periodic
FREQUENCY AND PERIOD ARE THE INVERSE OF EACH OTHER.
 FREQUENCY
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect to
time.
• Change in a short span of time means high
Iffrequency.
a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
• Change over a long span of time means low
If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite
frequency
Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,

but different phases

THE TIME-
DOMAIN
AND
FREQUENC
Y- D O M A I N
PLOTS OF
A SINE
WAV E

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in the

frequency domain.
 SIGNALS AND
C O M M U N I C AT I O N
• A single-frequency sine wave is not
useful in data communications
• If the composite signal is periodic,
• We need to send a composite the decomposition gives a series of
signal, a signal made of many signals with discrete frequencies.
simple sine waves.
• If the composite signal is
• According to Fourier analysis, any nonperiodic, the decomposition
composite signal is a combination gives a combination of sine waves
of simple sine waves with different with continuous frequencies.
frequencies, amplitudes, and
phases.
DIGITAL
SIGNALS
IN ADDITION TO BEING
REPRESENTED BY AN
ANALOG SIGNAL,
INFORMATION CAN ALSO BE
REPRESENTED
BY A DIGITAL SIGNAL. FOR
EXAMPLE, A I CAN BE
ENCODED AS A POSITIVE
VOLTAGE AND A 0
AS ZERO VOLTAGE.
A DIGITAL SIGNAL CAN HAVE
MORE THAN TWO LEVELS.

We send 1 bit per level in part a of the figure

and 2 bits per level in part b of the
figure. In general, if a signal has L levels,
each level needs log2L bits.
A DIGITAL SIGNAL HAS EIGHT LEVELS. HOW MANY BITS ARE NEEDED PER LEVEL?

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level?
We calculate the number of bits by using the formula. Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits.

However, this answer is not realistic. The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For this

example, 4 bits can represent one level.

TRANSMISSION
OF DIGITAL
SIGNALS
We can transmit a digital signal by
using one of two different
approaches: baseband transmission
or broadband transmission (using
modulation).
Baseband Transmission-Baseband
transmission means sending a digital
signal over a channel without
changing the digital signal to an
analog signal
BASEBAND AND
BROADBAND
TRANSMISSION
Baseband

Baseband transmissions typically use digital signaling over a single wire;

the transmissions themselves take the form of either electrical pulses or
light. The digital signal used in baseband transmission occupies the
entire bandwidth of the network media to transmit a single data signal.
Baseband communication is bidirectional, allowing computers to both
send and receive data using a single cable. However, the sending and
receiving cannot occur on the same wire at the same time.

Broadband

Whereas baseband uses digital signaling, broadband uses

analog signals in the form of optical or electromagnetic waves over
multiple transmission frequencies. For signals to be both sent and
received, the transmission media must be split into two channels.
Alternatively, two cables can be used: one to send and one to receive
transmissions
THE NYQUIST LIMIT

For a noiseless channel, the maximum

data rate is:
2H log2 V bits/sec
,where H is the channel bandwidth (in
Hz) and V is the number of discrete
levels of the signal.
THE SHANNON LIMIT

The maximum data rate of a noisy channel whose bandwidth is H Hz,

and whose signal-to-noise ratio is S/N, is given by
H log2 (1+S/N).
TRANSMISS
ION MEDIA
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
AND PHYSICAL LAYER
CLASSES OF
TRANSMISSION
MEDIA
GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),

Twisted-pair cable each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together
TWISTED-PAIR CABLE

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is
used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between
the two
If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the
same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the
noise or crosstalk sources (e,g., one is closer and the other is farther)
UNSHIELDED VERSUS SHIELDED
TWISTED-PAIR CABLE

 The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as

unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair
cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
 STP is seldom used outside of IBM and expensive also
CATEGORIES OF UNSHIELDED
TWISTED-PAIR CABLES
The Electronic Industries
Association (EIA) has developed
standards to classify unshielded
twisted-pair cable into seven
categories. Categories are
determined by cable quality, with 1
as the lowest and 7 as the highest.
Each EIA category is suitable for
specific uses.

CAT- Category
American Wire Gauge (AWG)
COAXIAL CABLE
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are
constructed quite differently.
Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is,
in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as
the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the
whole cable is protected by a plastic cover
OPTICAL FIBER

Optical fibers use reflection to

guide light through a channel.
A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of
less dense glass or plastic. The
difference in density of the two
materials must be such that a
beam of light moving through
the core is reflected off the
cladding instead of being
refracted into it
CABLE
COMPOSITI
ON
FIBER-OPTIC CABLE CONNECTORS
The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a
push/pull locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for
connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system
and is more reliable than SC.
MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to
as wireless communication.
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
PROPAGATION METHODS
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several
ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight
propagation
WIRELESS
TRANSMISSI
ON WAVES
o Radio waves : 3 kHz and 1 GHz
Microwaves, electromagnetic waves: 1 and
300
GHz

o However, the behavior of the waves, rather

than the frequencies, is a better criterion for
RADIO WAVES

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and television,
and paging systems. They can penetrate through
walls.
Highly regulated. Use omni directional antennas
The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage
too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna
are susceptible to interference by another
antenna that may send signals using the same
frequency or band.
It use sky propagation
 MICROWAVES
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as
cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.
Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight
communications
INFRARED
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed
area using line-of-sight propagation
Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one
system and another; a short-range communication system in one room
cannot be affected by another system in the next room.
The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the
use of infrared waves, has established standards for using these
signals for communication between devices such as keyboards, mice,
PCs, and printers
SIMPLE REFERENCE MODEL USED HERE

Application Application
Transport Transport

Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Radio Medium
EVOLUTION OF MOBILE COMMUNICATION
10-YEAR CYCLE BETWEEN GENERATIONS