UNIT III:

DATA TRANSMISSION
MECHANISM [20HRS.]
• Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data
between two or more computers and a computer network or data
network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to
exchange data.

• The physical connection between networked computing devices is

established using either cable media or wireless media.
• The best-known computer network is the Internet.
3.1 COMMUNICATION MODELS:
SIMPLEX, HALF DUPLEX & FULL DUPLEX
• Simplex communication means that communication can only flow in one
direction and never flow back the other way.
• A duplex communication system is a point-to-point system composed of two
connected parties or devices that can communicate with one another in both
directions, simultaneously.
• In telecommunication, duplex communication means that both ends of the
communication can send and receive signals at the same time.
• Full-duplex communication is the same thing. Half-duplex is also bidirectional
communication but signals can only flow in one direction at a time.
 SIMPLEX

• Simplex is a one-way only communication standard. Broadcast information, or data,

can only travel in one direction, versus duplex which allows for two-way broadcasting.
• Examples of simplex include radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, computer to
printer communication, and keyboard to computer connections.
• Simplex is a communications mode in which only one signal is transmitted, and it
always goes in the same direction.
• The transmitter and the receiver operate on the same frequency.
• When two stations exist and they alternately (not simultaneously) send signals to
each other on the same frequency, the mode is technically known as half duplex.
• However, most amateur radio operators refer to half duplex as simplex.
HALF DUPLEX

• Half Duplex Refers to the transmission of data in just one direction at a time.
• For example, a walkie-talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can talk at a time.
• In contrast, a telephone is a full-duplex device because both parties can talk simultaneously.
• Duplex modes often are used in reference to network data transmissions.
• Some modems contain a switch that lets you select between half-duplex and full- duplex modes.
• The correct choice depends on which program you are using to transmit data through the
modem. In half-duplex mode, each character transmitted is immediately displayed on your
screen. (For this reason, it is sometimes called local echo -- characters are echoed by the local
device).
• In full- duplex mode, transmitted data is not displayed on your monitor
until it has been received and returned (remotely echoed) by the other
device.
• If you are running a communications program and every character
appears twice, it probably means that your modem is in half-duplex
mode when it should be in full-duplex mode, and every character is
being both locally and remotely echoed.
 FULL DUPLEX

• Full Duplex Refers to the transmission of data in two directions simultaneously. For example,
a telephone is a full-duplex device because both parties can talk at once.
• In contrast, a walkie-talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can transmit at a
time.
• Most modems have a switch that lets you choose between full-duplex and half- duplex
modes. The choice depends on which communications program you are running.
• In full-duplex mode, data you transmit does not appear on your screen until it has been
received and sent back by the other party.
• This enables you to validate that the data has been accurately transmitted.
• If your display screen shows two of each character, it probably means that your modem is
set to half-duplex mode when it should be in full-duplex mode.
3.2 TRANSMISSION MODES: SERIAL
TRANSMISSION, PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

• The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in

either parallel or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent
with each clock tick.
• In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick. While there is only one
way.
 1. PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

• Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of n bits each.
• Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of and use verbal
language in the form of words rather than letters.
• By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel transmission.
• The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one: Use n wires to send n bits at
one time.
• That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock tick
from one device to another.
• Figure shows how parallel transmission works for n =8. Typically, the eight wires are bundled in a
cable with a connector at each end.
• The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel transmission can
increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission.
But there is a significant disadvantage: cost. parallel transmission
requires n communication lines just to transmit the data stream.
because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited
to short distances.
SERIAL TRANSMISSION

• in serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one

communication channel rather than n to transmit data between two
communicating devices((see Figure )
• The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one
communication channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of
transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.
• Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are
required at the interface between the sender and the line (parallel-to-
serial) and between the line and the receiver (serial-to-parallel).
3.3 SYNCHRONIZATION: ASYNCHRONOUS
AND SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
1. SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

• In Synchronous Transmission, data flows in a full duplex mode in the form of

blocks or frames. Synchronization between the sender and receiver is
necessary so that the sender know where the new byte starts (since there
is no gap between the data).
• Synchronous Transmission is efficient, reliable and is used for transferring a
large amount of data.
• It provides real-time communication between connected devices. Chat
Rooms, Video Conferencing, telephonic conversations, as well as face to
face interactions, are some of the examples of Synchronous Transmission.
2. ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

• In Asynchronous Transmission data flows in a half duplex mode, 1 byte or

a character at a time. It transmits the data in a continuous stream of
bytes.
• In general, the size of a character sent is 8 bits to which a parity bit is
added i.e. a start and a stop bit that gives the total of 10 bits.
• It does not require a clock for synchronization; rather it uses the parity bits
to tell the receiver how to interpret the data.
• It is simple, fast, economical and does not require a 2-way communication.
• Letters, emails, forums, televisions and radios are some of the examples of
Asynchronous Transmission.
• In this diagram, two bytes are sent, each consisting of a start bit, followed by eight
data bits (bits 0-7), and one stop bit, for a 10-bit character frame.
• The last data bit is sometimes used as a parity bit. The number of data and
formatting bits, the order of data bits, the presence or absence of a parity bit, the
form of parity (even or odd) and the transmission speed must be pre-agreed by the
communicating parties.
• The "stop bit" is actually a "stop period"; the stop period of the transmitter may be
arbitrarily long. It cannot be shorter than a specified amount, usually 1 to 2 bit times.
• The receiver requires a shorter stop period than the transmitter. At the end of each
character, the receiver stops briefly to wait for the next start bit.
• It is this difference which keeps the transmitter and receiver synchronized.
 SYNCHRONOUS ASYNCHRONOUS
BASIS FOR COMPARISON
TRANSMISSION TRANSMISSION
Meaning Transmission starts with the It uses start bit and stop bit
block header which holds a preceding and following a
sequence of bits. character respectively.
Transmission manner Sends data in the form of Sends 1 byte or character at
blocks or frames a time
Synchronization Present with the same clock Absent
pulse.
Transmission Speed Fast Slow

Gap between the data Does not exist Exist

Cost Expensive Economical
Time Interval Constant Random
Implemented by Hardware and software Hardware only
Examples Chat Rooms, Video Letters, emails, forums,
Conferencing, Telephonic etcetera.
Conversations, etcetera.
Key Differences Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission

1.In Synchronous Transmission data is transferred in the form of frames on the other hand in
Asynchronous Transmission data is transmitted 1 byte at a time.
2.Synchronous Transmission requires a clock signal between the sender and receiver so as to
inform the receiver about the new byte. Whereas, in Asynchronous Transmission sender and
receiver does not require a clock signal as the data sent here has a parity bit attached to it
which indicates the start of the new byte.
3.Data transfer rate of Asynchronous Transmission is slower than that of synchronous
transmission.

4.Asynchronous Transmission is simple and economic whereas, Synchronous Transmission is

complex and expensive.
5.Synchronous Transmission is efficient and has lower overhead as compared to the
Asynchronous Transmission.
 MODULATION
• Modulation is primarily used in telecommunication technologies that require the transmission of data via
electrical signals.
• It is considered the backbone of data communication because it enables the use of electrical and optical
signals as information carriers.
• Modulation is achieved by altering the periodic waveform or the carrier.
• Def: Modulation is a process through which audio, video, image or text information is added to an electrical
or optical carrier signal to be transmitted over a telecommunication or electronic medium.
• Modulation enables the transfer of information on an electrical signal to a receiving device that demodulates
the signal to extract the blended information.
• Def: Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source in a way that is suitable for
transmission. This is achieved by altering the characteristics of a wave.
• In telecommunications, a carrier wave, carrier signal, or just carrier, is a waveform (usually sinusoidal)
that is modulated (modified) with an information bearing signal for the purpose of conveying information.
This carrier wave usually has a much higher frequency than the input signal does.
3.4. MODULATION TECHNIQUES:

• Types of Analog Modulation

• 1. amplitude modulation(AM)
• 2. phase modulation(PM)
• 3. frequency modulation(FM)
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION(AM)
• The amplitude (height) of the signal is changed depending on the information to be sent.
• Amplitude Modulation is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a
radio carrier wave.
• Amplitude Modulation works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent.
• For example, changes in the signal strength can be used to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker. This
modulation techniques changes the amplitude of the signal wave, hence it is called amplitude modulation.
• The modulation process is performed on the basis of original signal amplitude.
• If the amplitude of the signal is in positive(upper) portion, then the amplitude of modulated signal increases.
• Similarly, if the amplitude(height) of the signal is in negative(low) portion then the amplitude of the modulated signal
decreases.
• The amount of the amplitude of modulated signal increases and decreases depends on amplitude of the original signal.
• The AM transmission is not very good for transmitting high quality signal.
• The original signal can be altered by the atmosphere variables like lightning and quality degrades.
• In AM, the carrier itself does not fluctuate in amplitude.
• Instead, the modulating data appears in the form of signal components at
frequencies slightly higher and lower than that of the carrier. These components
are called sidebands.
• The lower sideband (LSB) appears at frequencies below the carrier frequency; the
upper sideband (USB) appears at frequencies above the carrier frequency.
• The LSB and USB are essentially "mirror images" of each other in a graph of
signal amplitude versus frequency, as shown in the illustration.
• The sideband power accounts for the variations in the overall amplitude of the
signal.
• When a carrier is amplitude-modulated with a pure sine wave, up to 1/3
(33percent) of the overall signal power is contained in the sidebands.
• The other 2/3 of the signal power is contained in the carrier, which does not
contribute to the transfer of data.
• With a complex modulating signal such as voice, video, or music, the sidebands
generally contain 20 to 25 percent of the overall signal power; thus the carrier
consumes75 to 80 percent of the power.
• This makes AM an inefficient mode. If an attempt is made to increase the
modulating data input amplitude beyond these limits, the signal will become
distorted, and will occupy a much greater bandwidth than it should.
• This is called over modulation, and can result in interference to signals on
nearby frequencies.
ADVANTAGES

1. It is simple to implement.
2. It can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few
components.
3. AM receivers are very cheap as no specialized components are
needed.
4. Easier method for transmitting and receiving audio signals
5. Requires low carrier frequencies(.5MHz-20MHz).
6. More area can be covered by transmitter.
7. Requires simple and cheaper transmitters and receivers.
DISADVANTAGES

1. Is not efficient in terms of its power usage, bandwidth.

2. Is prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude
based and obviously AM detectors are sensitive to it.
3. Poor quality of audio signal.
4. Low efficiency as the information is contained only in the side bands.
 FREQUENCY MODULATION(FM)

• In contrast to amplitude modulation, frequency modulation conveys information over a carrier wave by changing the cycles of
frequency.
• The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not changed at all. This method has less amount of noise and gives the best
encoding method as far as quality is concerned.
• This modulation process is performed on the basis of original signal frequency.
• If the frequency of the signal is in positive(upper) portion, then the frequency of modulated signal increases.
• Similarly, if the amplitude(height) of the signal is in negative(lower) portion then the frequency of the modulated signal
decreases.
• The amount of frequency of the modulated signal increase and decreases depends on amplitude of the original signal.
• FM signals are used in technology such as radars, telemeters, EEG, radio broadcasting, satellite communication and magnetic
tape recording systems.
• The FM transmission is very good for transmitting high quality signal.
• the original signal cannot be altered by the atmosphere variables and
hence the quality remains same.
• The frequencies vary by up to 5kHz in the case of wireless two-way
communication and they vary up to several MHz in the case of wireless
broadcasting.
ADVANTAGES

• Amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains unaffected.

• Large decrease in noise, hence increase is signal-to-noise(S/N) ratio.
• Noise may reduce by increasing deviation.
• Frequency allocation allows for a guard band which reduces adjacent
channel interference.
• Operate in very very high frequency(VHF).
• Gives high fidelity(hi-fi) reception as more number of useful sidebands
are present.
DISADVANTAGES

• FM wave cannot cover large area.

• Transmitting and receiving equipment's for FM are complex and costly.
• A much wider channel, typically 200kHz, is needed for FM.
 PHASE MODULATION(PM)
• In phase modulation, the amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains
unchanged but alters its phases.
• The characteristics of this encoding technique are similar to FM.
• Phase modulation is a form of modulation that can be used for radio signals used for a
variety of radio communications applications.
• As will be seen later, phase modulation, and frequency modulation are closely linked
together and it is often used in many transmitters and receivers used for a variety of
radio communications applications from two way radio communications links, mobile
radio communications and even maritime mobile radio communications.
• Phase modulation is also the basis for many forms of digital modulation based around
phase sift keying(PSK), which is a form of phase modulation.
• In analog phase modulation, the phase of the AC signal wave also called as the carrier, varies
in a continuous manner. Thus, there are infinity many possible carrier phase states.
• In digital phase modulation, the carrier phase sifts abruptly, rather than continuously back
and forth.
• The number of possible carrier phase states is usually a power of 2.
• If there are only two possible phase states, the mode is called biphasemodulation.
• In more complex modes, there can be four, eight, or more different phase states.
• Each phase angle(that is, each shift from one phase state to another) represents a specific
digital input data state.
ADVANTAGES

• it is easy matched against frequency modulation.

• Phase modulator makes it easy in finding velocity of acting by pulling
out Doppler info.
DISADVANTAGES

• Phase ambiguity comes up if we surpass its transition index to pi

radian(180 degree).
• We require frequency multiplier to maximize phase modulation index.
TYPES OF DIGITAL MODULATION

In digital modulation, an analog carrier signals is modulated by a digital

bit stream.
There are three major classes of digital modulation techniques used for
transmission of digitally represented data:
1. Phase-shift keying(PSK)
2. Frequency-shift keying(FSK)
3. Amplitude-shift keying(ASK)
4. Quadrature amplitude modulation(QAM)
 • Definitions:
• ASK: ASK is a modulation method where digital signals change the amplitude of the carrier wave.
• If the digital signal value is 1, then the carrier wave amplitude remains the same.
• If the digital signal value is 0, then the amplitude of carrier wave is much weaker.

• FSK:FSK is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier wave changes
with digital signals.
• If the digital binary value is 1, the frequency of the carrier wave is higher.
• If the digital binary value is 0, the frequency of the carrier wave would become lower.

• PSK:PSK is the digital modulation process which transmits data by changing the phase of a
constant frequency of the carrier wave.
• The frequency and amplitude of the carrier wave remain the same, only change is the phase.
• Phase changes at the point where binary value 1 changes to binary value 0 or where 0 changes to 1.

• QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) is a method of combining two amplitude-modulated (AM) signals into
a single channel, thereby doubling the effective bandwidth.
• QAM is used with pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) in digital systems, especially in wireless applications.
 1. PHASE-SHIFT KEYING (PSK)

• Is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a reference
signal(the carrier wave).
• It uses a finite number of phases; each assigned a unique pattern of binary bits.
• Each phase encodes an equal number of bits.
• Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase.
• Here, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more different signal elements.
• Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes.
• Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK.
• The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we have only two signal elements, one more with a phase of 0
degree, and the other with a phase of 180 degree.
ADVANTAGES

1. Is more power efficient modulation technique compared to ASK and

FSK.
2. It is less susceptible to errors compare to ASK modulation and
occupies same bandwidth as ASK.
3. Higher data rate of transmission can be achieved using high level of
PSK modulations such as QPSK(represents 2 bits per constellation),
16-QAM(represents 4 bits per constellation) etc.
DISADVANTAGES

1. It has lower bandwidth efficiency

2. The binary data is encoded by estimation of phase states of the
signal. These detection and recovery algorithms are very complex.
3. Multi level PSK modulation schemes(QPSK, 16QAM etc.) are more
sensitive to phase variations.
4. It is also one form of FSK and hence it also offers lower bandwidth
efficiency compare to ASK modulation type.
2. FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (FSK)

• Is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through

discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave.
• The simplest FSK is binary FSK(BFSK). BFSK literally implies using a couple of discrete
frequencies to transmit binary(0s and 1s) information.
• With this scheme, the “1” is called the mark frequency and the “0” is called the space
frequency.
• In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data.
• The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal element,
but changes for the next signal element if the data element changes.
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.
• One way to think about binary FSK(or BFSK) is to consider two carrier
frequencies.
• In figure, we have selected two carrier frequencies f1 and f2.
• We use the first carrier if the data element is 0 and second carrier if the data
element is 1.
ADVANTAGES

• It is lower probability of error.

• It provides high SNR(signal to noise ratio).
• It has higher immunity to noise due to constant envelope. Hence it is
robust against variation in attenuation through channel.
• FSK transmitter and FSK receiver implementations are simple for low
data rate application.
DISADVANTAGES

• It uses larger bandwidth compared to ASK and PSK.

• The BER(bit error rate) performance in AWGN(additive white Gaussian
noise) channel is worse compare to PSK modulation.
• The FSK is not preferred for the high speed modems because with
increase in speed, the bit rate increases.
 3. AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEY(ASK)

• ASK is a form of modulation that represents digital data as variations in the

amplitude of a carrier wave.
• the amplitude of an analog carrier signal varies in accordance with the bit
stream, keeping frequency and phase constant.
• The level of amplitude can be used to represent binary logic 0s and 1s.
• In the modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier, thus
giving OFF/ON keying operation and hence the name given.
ADVANTAGES

• It offers high bandwidth efficiency.

• It has simple receiver design.
• It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
• ASK modulation and ASK demodulation processes are comparatively
inexpensive.
• Its variant on-off keying(OOK) is used at radio frequencies to transmit
more codes.
DISADVANTAGES

• If offers lower power efficiency.

• ASK modulation is very susceptible(अतिसंवेदनशील) to noise
interference.
 4. QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION(QAM)
• QAM is a modulation scheme used for both digital and analog signals.
• Is doubles the effective bandwidth by combining two amplitude-modulated signals into a single channel. This allows multiple
analog signals to be placed on a single carrier, for example, in television signals, which contain both color signals and sound.
The two channels required for stereo sound signals can be carried by a single QAM.
• Digital QAM or quantized QAM is often used radio communication systems from regular cellular to LTE including WiMAX and
Wi-Fi.
• It is a form of modulation which is widely used for modulating data signals onto a carrier used for radio communications.
• It is widely used because it offers advantages over other forms if data modulation such as PSK, although many forms of data
modulation operate alongside each other.
• QAM is a signal in which two carriers shifted in phase by 90 degrees are modulated and the resultant output consists of both
amplitude and phase variations. In view of the fact that both amplitude and phase variations are preset it may also be
considered as a mixture of amplitude and phase modulation.
ADVANTAGES

• QAM variants is efficient usage of bandwidth. This is due to the fact

that QAM represent more number of bits per carrier.
• For example, 16QAM maps 4 bits per carrier, 64QAM maps 6 bits per
carrier, 256QAM maps 8bits per carrier and so on.
DISADVANTAGES

• It is more susceptible to the noise due to which QAM receiver is more

complex compare to receivers of other modulation types.
• As QAM uses amplitude component of signal to represent binary data,
linearity need to be maintained and hence linear amplifier is needed
which consumes more power.
3.5 INTRODUCTION TO SWITCHING

• Switching: switching is a process to forward packets coming in form one port to a port leading
toward the destination.
• When data comes on a port, it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it is called
egress.
• A communication system may include number of switches and nodes.
• At broad level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
• 1. connectionless: the data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous handshaking is
required and acknowledgements are optional.
• 2. connection oriented: before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need to pre-
establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on that circuit. After
the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be turned down immediately.
SWITCHED NETWORK/SWITCHING

• A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches.

• Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two
or more devices linked to the switch.
• In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end
systems(for eg. computer or telephones).
• The end systems(communicating devices) are labeled A, B, C, D and so on and
the switches are labeled as I, II, III, IV and V. Each switch is connected to multiple
links.
• Traditionally, three methods of switching have been important: circuit switching,
packet switching and message switching.
• The first two are commonly used today. The third has been phased out in general
communications but still has networking applications.
• We can divide todays networks into three broad categories: circuit-
switched networks, packet-switched networks and message switched.
 PACKET SWITCHING

• Packet Switching is connectionless as it doesn’t establish any physical connection before the transmission starts.
• In packet switching before the message is transmitted, it is divided into some manageable parts called packets.
These packets are routed one by one from source to destination.
• In packet switching, packets can travel any path on the network to their destination because each packet
contains an IP address and sequencing information.
• Packets arrived at the destination are out of order but, they are assembled in order before the destination
forward it to the upper layer.
• Packet switching networks are connected through many routers, each serving different segment of networks.
• The internet is based on a packet switching protocol, TCP/IP.
• Packet switching is always implemented at the network layer.
Here, suppose a data to be sent from A port to B port
is divided into 4 packets named as 1, 2, 3 and 4
In packet switching, packets can travel from
different nodes.
These packets reaches to port B in different
forms.
Now, the packets are assembled according to
the packets as it is sent.
These assembled packets form a data.
ADVANTAGES

• More efficient use of overall network bandwidth due to flexibility in

routing the smaller packets over shared links.
• It allows multiplexing; different users, or different processes from the
same user, can communicate at the same time.
• Cheaper to build as less equipment is needed/
DISADVANTAGES

• Longer delays in receiving messages due to the time required to

package and route packets.
• Potential for network security risks due to the use of shared physical
links.
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING

• Circuit switching is a type of switching in which a dedicated channel or circuit is established for the
duration of communications.
• Circuit switching establishes a physical path between the sender and receiver of the message before a
message is delivered.
• When the connection is established between a sender and a receiver, the entire message travels through
the established path from sender to the receiver.
• Once the message is delivered to the receiver, the source informs the network about the completion of
transmission and all the switches released. Then the link and other connecting devices are used to set up
another connection.
• A method used by the old traditional telephone call-carried over the Public Switched Telephone
Network(PSTN). It is also referred to as the Plain Old Telephone Service(POTS).
• Circuit switching is always implemented at the physical layers.
❑ The figure shows the typical traditional telephone network looks like.
The PSTN networks are connected through central offices which act as telephone exchanges, each
serving a certain geographical area.
For example a person A calls a person B, the telephone network is trying different
circuits to find a available channel.
A connection must be established before they start their conversations.
Once the channel is decided, it guarantees the full bandwidth and remains connected
for the duration of the communication session under users terminate their connection.
When you are making a PSTN call, you are actually renting the lines. That is why
international telephone call or long distance phone call was expensive.
ADVANTAGES

• Is uses a fixed bandwidth.

• A dedicated communication channel increases the quality of
communication.
• Data is transmitted with a fixed data rate.
• No waiting time at switches.
• Suitable for long continuous communication.
DISADVANTAGES

• A dedicated connection makes it impossible to transmit other data

even if the channel is free.
• Resources are not utilized fully.
• The time required to establish the physical link between the two
stations is too long.
• As a dedicated path has to be established for each connection, circuit
switching is more expensive.
• Dedicated channels require more bandwidth.
 PACKET VS. CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Serial Circuit – Switching Packet – Switching
Number
1 It is a connection oriented network switching It is a connectionless network switching technique.
technique.
2 A dedicated path has to be established between the There is no need to establish a dedicated path from the
source and the destination before transfer of data source to the destination.
commences. Once, the data is transmitted, the path
is relinquished.
3 It is inflexible in nature since data packets are Each packet is routed separately. Consequently, it is flexible
routed along the same dedicated path. in nature where the different data packets follow different
paths.
4 It was initially designed for voice transfer. It was initially designed for data transfer.
5 The entire message is received in the order sent by The individual packets of the message are received out of
the source. order and so need to be reassembled at the destination.
6 It is implemented at Physical Layer. It is implemented at Network Layer.
7 It has two approaches − It has two approaches −
•Space division switching, and •Datagram, and
•Time division switching •Virtual Circuit
8 It is not a store and forward transmission. It is store and forward transmission.
9 Data is processed and transmitted at the source Data is processed and transmitted, not only at the source but
only. at each switching station.
DEFINITIONS

• Circuit Switched Networks − Circuit switched networks are

connection-oriented networks. Here, a dedicated route is established
between the source and the destination and the entire message is
transferred through it.
• Packet Switched Networks − Packet switched networks are
connectionless networks. Here, the message is divided and grouped
into a number of units called packets that are individually routed from
the source to the destination.
 CIRCUIT SWITCHED VS. PACKET SWITCHED
NETWORKS
Serial Circuit – Switching Networks Packet – Switching Networks
Number

1 They are suitable for long continuous transmission, like They are unsuitable for applications that cannot afford
voice calls. delays in communication like high quality voice calls.

2 Once a route is established between the source and the It allows simultaneous usage of the same channel by
destination, the route cannot be used by any other user. multiple users. This guarantees better resource
This leads to poor utilization of resources. utilization.

3 Bandwidth requirement is high even in cases of low data It ensures better bandwidth usage as a number of
volume. packets from multiple sources can be transferred via
the same link.
4 Time required to establish connection may be high. Delay in delivery of packets is less, since packets are
sent as soon as they are available.

5 Initial cost is low. Packet switching high installation costs.

6 The protocols for delivery are relatively simpler. They require complex protocols for delivery.
7 It is more reliable. It is less reliable.
• Two major packet switching modes exist:

1. connectionless packet switching, also known as datagram switching;

and
2. connection-oriented packet switching, also known as virtual circuit
switching.
 CONNECTIONLESS SERVICES
(DIGITAL SWITCHING)
• In data communications, we need to send messages from one end system to another.
• If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it need to be divided into packets of fixed or variable size.
• The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol.
• In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there is no reserved bandwidth on the links, and
there is no scheduled processing time for each packet. Resources are allocated on demand.
• The allocation is done on a first come, first-served basis.
• When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is the source or destination, the packet must wait if there are other packets being
processed.
• As with other systems in our daily life, this lack of reservation may create delay.
• For example, if we do not have a reservation at a restaurant, we might have to wait.
• In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others.
• Even if a packet is part of a multi packet transmission, the network treats it as though it existed alone.
• Packets in this approach are referred as datagrams.
• Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer.
• the switches in a datagram network are traditionally referred to as routers.
⮚ In this example, all four packets(or datagrams) belong to the same message, but may
travel different paths to reach their destination.
⮚ This is so because the links may be involved in carrying packets from other sources and do
not have the necessary bandwidth available to carry all the packets from A to X.
⮚ This approach can cause the datagrams of a transmission to arrive at their destination out
of order with different delays between them packets.
⮚ Packets may also be lost or dropped because of a lack of resources.
⮚ In most protocols, it is the responsibility of an upper-layer protocol to reorder the
datagrams or ask for lost datagrams before passing them on the application.
⮚ The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks which
means that he switch(packet switch) does not keep information about the connection state.
⮚ There are no setup or teardown phases.
⮚ Each packets is treated the same by a switch regardless of its source or destination.
 CONNECTION ORIENTED SERVICES
(VIRTUAL CIRCUIT)
• A virtual circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network.
• It has some characteristics of both:

1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on demand, as in a datagram
network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header. However, the
address in the header has local jurisdiction , not end-to-end jurisdiction. The reader may ask how the intermediate
switches know where to send the packet if there is no final destination address carried by a packet.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit-switched network is
implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network layer. But this may change in the future.
⮚ Figure is an example of a virtual circuit network.
⮚ The network has switches that allow traffic from sources to destinations.
⮚ A source or destination can be a computer, packet switch, bridge or any other
device that connects other networks.
⮚ A circuit switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical
links.
⮚ A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more
links.
⮚ However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.
⮚ Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
⮚ The actual communication in a circuit switched network requires three phases:
connection setup phase, data transfer phase and connection teardown phase.
 VIRTUAL CIRCUIT VS DATAGRAM
Virtual Circuits Datagram Networks
Virtual circuits are connection-oriented, which means that there is a
reservation of resources like buffers, bandwidth, etc. for the time It is connectionless service. There is no need for reservation of
during which the newly setup VC is going to be used by a data resources as there is no dedicated path for a connection session.
transfer session.
A virtual circuit network uses a fixed path for a particular session,
A Datagram based network is a true packet switched network. There
after which it breaks the connection and another path has to be set
is no fixed path for transmitting data.
up for the next the next session.
All the packets follow the same path and hence a global header is Every packet is free to choose any path, and hence all the packets
required only for the first packet of connection and other packets will must be associated with a header containing information about the
not require it. source and the upper layer data.

Packets reach in order to the destination as data follows the same Data packets reach the destination in random order, which means
path. they need not reach in the order in which they were sent out.

Virtual Circuits are highly reliable. Datagram networks are not as reliable as Virtual Circuits.

Implementation of virtual circuits is costly as each time a new But it is always easy and cost-efficient to implement datagram
connection has to be set up with reservation of resources and extra networks as there is no need of reserving resources and making a
information handling at routers. dedicated path each time an application has to communicate.
 X.25

⮚ X.25 is an International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication

Standardization Sector (ITU-T) protocol standard for WAN communications that
defines how connections between user devices and network devices are established
and maintained.
⮚ X.25 is designed to operate effectively regardless of the type of systems connected
to the network.
⮚ It is typically used in the packet-switched networks (PSN) of common carriers, such
as the telephone companies. Subscribers are charged based on their use of the
network.
• X.25 network contains three general categories of devices:
✔ Data Terminal Equipment(DTE)- end systems that communicate across the X.25
network (terminals, PCs, network hosts.).
✔ Data Circuit-terminating Equipment(DCE) – communication devices that provide
interface between DTE and PSE (modems, packet switches).
✔ Packet Switching Exchange(PSE) – switches that compose the bulk of the carriers
network and transfer data from one DTE device to another through the X.25
PSN.

• An X.25 network also consisted of a packet assembler/dissembler(PAD), which

waited for 128 bytes from the terminal before it sent off a packet, and likewise,
broke the packet up at the receiver side to give the illusion of a stream.
 FRAME RELAY

⮚ Frame relay is a standardized WAN technology that specifies the physical and logical link
layers of digital telecommunications channels using a packet switching methodology.
⮚ Originally designed for transport across integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN)
infrastructure, it may be used today in the context of many other network interfaces.
⮚ Network providers commonly implement Frame Relay for voice and data as an encapsulation
technique, used between Local Area Networks(LAN) over a Wide Area Network(WAN).
⮚ Each end-user gets a private line(or leased line) to a frame-relay node.
⮚ The frame-relay network handles the transmission over a frequently-changing path
transparent to all end-users.
⮚ The Frame Relay frame is transmitted to its destination through virtual circuits,
which are logical paths from an originating point in the network to a destination
point.
⮚ Virtual circuits provide bidirectional communication paths from one terminal
device to another and are uniquely identified by a data-link connection
identifier(DLCI).
⮚ A number of virtual circuits can be multiplexed into a single physical circuit for
transmission across the network.
⮚ this capability often can reduce the equipment and network complexity required
to connect multiple terminal devices.
⮚ A virtual circuit can pass through any number of intermediate switches located
within the Frame Relay packet switched network.
• Two general categories of Frame Relay devices :
❖Data Terminal Equipment's (DTEs), which include terminals, personal computers, router
and bridges.
❖Data Circuit-terminating Equipment’s(DCEs), which transmit the data through the
network and are often carrier-owned devices(although, increasingly, enterprises are
buying their own DCEs and implementing them in their networks).

• Frame Relay networks transfer data using one of the following two connection types:
⮚ Switched Virtual Circuits(SVCs), which are temporary connections that are created for
each data transfer and then are terminated when the data transfer is complete (not a
widely used connection).
⮚ Permanent Virtual Circuits(PVCs), which are permanent connections.
• Note:
⮚ too many hops: When you send an email message over a network, it is transferred to and through
several computers before it gets to its destination. Each transfer between computers is called
a hop. The "too many hops" error message means there are too many transfers between you
and your recipient.
⮚ The receiver and sender need to negotiate how much data the sender is allowed to send at any
point in time, and the sender must not violate this agreement. This agreement is called flow
control, and is the result of negotiation between the end-to-end transport layers at the receiver
and sender.
⮚ Congestion control is a network layer issue, and is thus concerned with what happens when
there is more data in the network than can be sent with reasonable packet delays, no lost
packets, etc. Flow control is a local, congestion control is global.
 X.25 VS. FRAME RELAY

X.25 FRAME RELAY

1. It has fixed data rate. 1. It has informal data rate.

2. It performs multiplexing and switching at network 2. It performs multiplexing and switching at data link
layer. layer.
3. It does not support Hop-to-Hop error and flow control.
3. It performs Hop-to-Hop error and flow control at
data link layer. 4. It does not support End-to-End flow and error control.

4. It performs End-to-End flow and error control at 5. Congestion control is required in frame relay.
network layer. 6. Call Control signaling requires separate logical
connection from user data.
5. Congestion control is not requires in X.25.
6. X.25 uses same data for call control signaling.
 ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

⮚ ATM is high speed networking standard designed to support both voice and data
communications.
⮚ ATM is a switching technique that uses time division multiplexing(TDM) for data
communications.
⮚ It is network technology that supports voice, video and data communications.
⮚ ATM encodes data into small fixed-sized cells so that they are suitable for TDM
and transmits them over physical medium.
THE FUNCTIONAL REFERENCE MODEL OF ATM
 ATM REFERENCE MODEL

• ATM reference model comprises of three layers −

1) Physical Layer − This layer corresponds to physical layer of OSI model. At this layer the cells are
converted into bit streams and transmitted over the physical medium. This layer has two sub layers −
PMD sub layer (Physical Medium Dependent) and TC sub layer (Transmission Covergence) sub layer.
2) ATM Layer − This layer is comparable to data link layer of OSI model. It accepts the 48 byte segments
from the upper layer, adds a 5 byte header to each segment and converts into 53 byte cells. This layer
is responsible for routing of each cell, traffic management, multiplexing and switching.
3) ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) − This layer corresponds to network layer of OSI model. It provides
facilities to the existing packet switched networks to connect to ATM network and use its services. It
accepts the data and converts them into fixed sized segments. The transmissions can be of fixed or
variable data rate. This layer has two sub layers − Convergence sub layer and Segmentation and
Reassembly sub layer.
 THE FEATURES OF ATM

⮚ ATM technology provides dynamic bandwidth that is particularly suited for bursty traffic.
⮚ All data are encoded into identical cells. Hence, data transmission is simple, uniform and predictable. Uniform
packet size ensures that mixed traffic is handled efficiently.
⮚ The size of an ATM cell is 53 bytes, 5 byte header and 48 byte payload. There are two different cell formats −
user-network interface (UNI) and network-network interface (NNI).
⮚ ‘Asynchronous’ implies that the cells do not need to be transmitted continuously as in synchronous lines.
Cells are sent only when there is data to be sent.
⮚ ATM header are of small size of 5 bytes. This reduces packet overload, thus ensuring effective bandwidth
usage.
⮚ ATM flexibly divide the bandwidth requirement of physical layer. It provides scalability both in size and speed.
 FRAME RELAY VS. ATM

BASIS FOR COMPARISON FRAME RELAY ATM

Packet size Variable Fixed
Processing overhead Increased Decreased
Data transfer Implemented in more than one area network. Takes place within a LAN
Cost Inexpensive Cost is higher
Speed Low High
QoS Quantifiable QoS is not provided. Offers quantifiable QoS.
Error control No support is provided for error and flow control Error and flow control is provided.

Data rate 64 Kbps up to 45 Mbps. 155.5 Mbps or 622 Mbps.

Reliability Low Good
Throughput Medium High
Delay High Less
3.6 MULTIPLEXING

• Multiplexing or muxing :- to combine multiple signals(analog or digital) for transmission over a

singe line or media.
• A common type of multiplexing combines several low-speed signals for transmission over a
single high-speed connection.
• In other words, we can say that Muxing is used for sharing of a medium and its link by two or
more devices.
• It can provide both efficiency and privacy.
• Multiplexing is done by a device called multiplexer(MUX) that combines n input line to generate
one output line i.e.(many to one). Therefore, multiplexer has several inputs and one output.
• At the receiving end, a device called demultiplexer(DEMUX) or demuxing is used that separates
signal into its component signals. So DEMUX has one input and several outputs.
THREE BASIC MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES

1. Frequency- Division Multiplexing(FDM)

2. Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)
3. Wave Division Multiplexing(WDM)
 1. FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• Frequency division multiplexing(FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.
• In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies.
• These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported
by the link.
• Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal.
These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.
• Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth- guard bands-to prevent signals from
overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
MULTIPLEXING PROCESS
DEMULTIPLEXING PROCESS
 2. WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability

of fiber-optic cable.
• The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.
• Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth.
• Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing
involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
• The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies.
• The difference is that the frequencies are very high.
• Figure gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer.
• Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider
band of light.
• At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.
• Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very simple.
• We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light at the
multiplexer and do the reverse at the demultiplexer.
• The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism.
• One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple optical fiber
lines are multiplexed and demultiplexed.
 3. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that

allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a
line instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM,
time is shared.
• Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
• Below figure gives a conceptual view of TDM.
• Note that the same link is used as in FDM; here, however, the
link is shown sectioned by time rather than by frequency.
• In the figure, portions of signals 1,2,3, and 4 occupy the link
sequentially.
• Note that in Figure we are concerned with only multiplexing,
not switching. This means that all the data in a message from
source 1 always go to one specific destination, be it 1, 2, 3, or
4. The delivery is fixed and unvarying, unlike switching.
 3.7 ERROR CONTROL METHODS
• Error Detection and Correction Techniques
• Error detection and correction or error controls are techniques that enable reliable delivery of digital
data over unreliable communication channels.
• Many communication channels are subject to channel noise, and thus errors may be introduced
during transmission from the source to a receiver.
• Error detection techniques allow detecting such errors, while error correction enables reconstruction
of the original data.
• Three types of detecting errors are common in data communications:

1) parity check
2) cyclic redundancy checks (CRC)
3) checksum.
 FEEDBACK ERROR RECOVERY(ARQ)(e.g..:
based on parity check)
• Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)
• Automatic Repeat ReQuest (ARQ), also called Automatic Repeat Query, is an
error-control protocol that automatically initiates a call to retransmit any data
packet or frame after receiving flawed or incorrect data.
• When the transmitting device fails to receive an acknowledgement signal to
confirm the data has been received, it usually retransmits the data after a
predefined timeout and repeats the process a predetermined number of times
until the transmitting device receives the acknowledgement.
 PARITY CHECK

• Parity check is used to eliminate data communication error and is a simple method of network data
verification and has an easy and understandable working mechanism.
• As an example, if the original data is 1010001, there are three 1s. When even parity checking is used, a
parity bit with value 1 is added to the data’s left side to make the number of 1s even; transmitted data
becomes 11010001. However, if odd parity checking is used, then parity bit value is zero; 01010001.
• If the original data contains an even number of 1s (1101001), then parity bit of value 1 is added to the
data’s left side to make the number of 1s odd, if odd parity checking is used and data transmitted becomes
11101001. In case data is transmitted incorrectly, the parity bit value becomes incorrect; thus, indicating
error has occurred during transmission.
• While parity checking is a useful way validating data, it is not a foolproof method. For instance, the values
1010 and 1001 have the same parity. Therefore, if the value 1010 is transmitted and 1001 is received, no
error will be detected. This means parity checks are not 100% reliable when validating data. Still, it is
unlikely that more than one bit will be incorrect in a small packet of data. As long as only one bit is
changed, an error will result. Therefore, parity checks are most reliable when using small packet sizes.
 FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION(FEC)
(eg.cyclic redundancy check(CRC))
• In telecommunication and information theory, forward error correction (FEC) is a
system of error control for data transmission, whereby the sender adds redundant
data to its messages, also known as an error correction code.
• ▪This allows the receiver to detect and correct errors (within some bound) without
the need to ask the sender for additional data.
• ▪FEC devices are often located close to the receiver of an analog signal, in the first
stage of digital processing after a signal has been received.
• ▪FEC circuits are often an integral part of the analog-to-digital conversion process,
also involving digital modulation and demodulation, or line coding and decoding.
 ADVANTAGE AND USE

• ▪The advantage of forward error correction is that a back-channel is not required, or

that retransmission of data can often be avoided, at the cost of higher bandwidth
requirements on average.
• ▪FEC is therefore applied in situations where retransmissions are relatively costly or
impossible.
• ▪In particular, FEC information is usually added to most mass storage devices to
protect against damage to the stored data.
 TYPES OF FEC
• Block Coding

⮚ ▪Block codes work on fixed-size blocks (packets) of bits or symbols of predetermined size. Practical block codes can generally be hard-decoded in
polynomial time to their block length.

⮚ ▪There are many types of block codes, but among the classical ones the most notable is Reed- Solomon coding because of its widespread use on the
compact disc, the DVD, and in hard disk drives.

⮚ ▪Classical block codes are usually decoded using hard-decision algorithms, which means that for every input and output signal a hard decision is made
whether it corresponds to a one or a zero bit.

⮚ ▪Other examples of classical block codes include Golay, BCH, Multidimensional parity, and Hamming codes.

• Convolutional Coding

⮚ ▪Convolutional codes work on bit or symbol streams of arbitrary length.

⮚ ▪Convolutional codes are typically decoded using soft-decision algorithms like the Viterbi, MAP or BCJR algorithms, which process (discretized) analog
signals, and which allow for much higher error-correction performance than hard-decision decoding.

⮚ ▪They are most often soft decoded with the Viterbi algorithm, though other algorithms are sometimes used.

⮚ ▪Viterbi decoding allows asymptotically optimal decoding efficiency with increasing constraint length of the convolutional code, but at the expense of
exponentially increasing complexity.

⮚ ▪A convolutional code that is terminated is also a 'block code' in that it encodes a block of input data, but the block size of a convolutional code is
generally arbitrary, while block codes have a fixed size dictated by their algebraic characteristics.

⮚ ▪Types of termination for convolutional codes include "tail-biting" and "bit- flushing".
 CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK(CRC)

• The most powerful of the redundancy checking techniques is the cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
• Unlike the parity check which is based on addition. CRC is based on binary division.
• In CRC, instead of adding bits to achieve a desired parity, a sequence of redundant bits, called the
CRC or the CRC remainder, is appended to the end of a data unit so that the resulting data unit
becomes exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
• At its destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there is no
remainder the data unit is assumed to be intact and is therefore accepted. A remainder indicates that
the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must be rejected. The redundancy bits used
by CRC are derived by dividing the data unit by a predetermined divisor; the remainder is the CRC.
• To be valid, a CRC must have two qualities: It must have exactly one less bit than the divisor, and
appending it to the end of the data string must make the resulting bit sequence exactly divisible by
the divisor. Both the theory and the application of CRC error detection are straightforward. The only
complexity is in deriving the CRC.
CHECKSUM

• Errors frequently occur in data when it is written to a disk, transmitted across a

network or otherwise manipulated. The errors are typically very small, for
example, a single incorrect bit, but even such small errors can greatly affect
the quality of data, and even make it useless.
• In its simplest form, a checksum is created by calculating the binary values in a
packet or other block of data using some algorithm and storing the results with
the data. When the data is retrieved from memory or received at the other end
of a network, a new checksum is calculated and compared with the existing
checksum. A non-match indicates an error and also a match does not
necessarily mean the absence of errors but in most cases it works.