File and database
management systems
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Data resources must be organized and structured in some logical
manner so that they can be accessed easily, processed
efficiently, retrieved quickly and managed effectively.
Data structures and access methods ranging from simple to
complex have been devised to organize and access data stored
by information systems efficiently.
Facebook reports more than 2.5 billion users logging in at least
once each day. All of the videos, photos, user accounts, and
information are easily accessed because the data are stored in a
database system that organizes it so that a particular item can
be found on demand.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
File processing system
A file system is a method for storing and organizing data files to
make it easy to find and access them.
In traditional approach, all information were stored in hardcopy
form. When we need information, we used to search through the
papers.
Without a file system, information placed in a storage area would
be one large body of data with no way to tell where one piece of
information stops and the next begins.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
In file processing systems data are organized, stored, and
processed in independent files of data records.
The use of a traditional approach to file processing encourages
each functional area in a corporation to develop specialized
applications. Each application requires a unique data file that is
likely to be a subset of the master file.
These subsets of the master file lead to data redundancy and
inconsistency, processing inflexibility, and wasted storage
resources.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Disadvantages of file management systems
1. Data redundancy - Duplication of data
2. Data inconsistency - any two dependent files are not linked.
3. Lack of data integration – information in files is inaccurate
4. Data isolation- It is difficult to generate a single report of an
entity in the organization
5. Time consuming to search for particular information from the
file system.
6. Poor security – unauthorized access of data
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
A computer system organizes data in a hierarchy that starts with
bits and bytes and progresses to fields, records and files.
The most basic logical data element is the character , which
consists of a single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol.
A field consists of a grouping of related characters.
A group of related fields, such as the student’s name, the course
taken, the date, and the grade, comprises a record
A group of related records is called a file.
A database is an integrated collection of logically related data
elements.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Database management approach
Designed to solve problems encountered with the file processing
approach as the foundation of modern methods for managing
organizational data.
The database management approach consolidates data records,
formerly held in separate files into databases that can be
accessed by many different application programs.
Database management involves the use of database
management software to control how databases are created,
interrogated, and maintained to provide information that end
users need.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Functions performed in a database
The acronym CRUD refers to all of the major functions that need
to be implemented in a database application to consider it
complete.
Creating
Reading
Updating
Deleting
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Types of databases
Centralized database
A centralized database is a collection of information at a single
location accessible from numerous points.
A centralized database holds all of an organization's data on a
central computer, whether mainframe or server.
Distributed databases
A distributed database is a database that consists of two or more
files located at different sites on a computer network. Different
users can access it without interfering with one another.
• The database is completely duplicated at two or more locations.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Distributed databases
• To ensure that the distributive databases are up to date and
current, there are two processes: replication and duplication.
• Replication involves using specialized software that looks for
changes in the distributive database.
The replication process can be very complex and time
consuming depending on the size and number of the distributive
databases.
This process can also require a lot of time and computer
resources.
Duplication is the processes of committing the changes on the
database
Central
Computer
CENTRALIZED DATABASES
DISTRIBUTED DATABASES
Location B
Location C
computer
computer
Homogeneous
computer Databases
Location A
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Database structures/ models
• They represent basic ways to develop and express the
relationships among the data elements in a database.
Hierarchical database model
It is the oldest model in which the relationships between records
form a hierarchy or treelike structure.
All records are dependent and arranged in multilevel structures,
consisting of one root record and any number of subordinate
levels which is not the case in most databases today. E. g an
order might come from both sales and marketing department.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Network model
It allows many-to-many relationships among records; that is, the
network model can access a data element by following one of
several paths because any data element or record can be related
to any number of other data elements.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Network model
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Relational structure
In the relational model, the data and the relationships among
data are represented by a collection of tables.
A relational database organizes data in tables (or relations). A
table is made up of rows and columns.
The relationships that can be created among the tables enable a
relational database to efficiently store huge amount of data, and
effectively retrieve selected data.
Relational
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Database management system (DBMS)
It is a software that permits an organization to centralize data,
manage them efficiently, and provide access to the stored data
by application programs.
The DBMS acts as an interface between application programs
and the physical data files. When the application program calls
for a data item, such as gross pay, the DBMS finds this item in
the database and presents it to the application program.
Examples of Database management packages Microsoft Access,
Lotus Approach , Oracle, MySQL etc.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Functions of a DBMS
Data Storage Management: It provides a mechanism for
management of permanent storage of the data.
Data Manipulation Management: A DBMS furnishes users
with the ability to retrieve, update and delete existing data in the
database.
Database Communication Interfaces: The end-user's
requests for database access are transmitted to DBMS in the
form of communication messages.
Authorization / Security Management: The DBMS protects
the database against unauthorized access, it furnishes
mechanism to ensure that only authorized users can access the
database.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Functions of a DBMS
Backup and Recovery Management: The DBMS provides
mechanisms for backing up data periodically and recovering
from different types of failures
Concurrency Control Service: they provide a mechanism for
managing concurrent access to the database.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Advantages of DBMS Over FMS
1. Controlling Data Redundancy
2. Elimination of Inconsistency
3. Improved strategic use of corporate data
4. Provide multiple user interfaces
5.Enhanced data integrity
6.Improved security
7.Increased access and availability of data and information
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Database failures
1. Transaction failure A transaction may fail to execute
Reasons for a transaction failure could be:
Logical errors − Where a transaction cannot complete because
it has some code error or any internal error condition.
System errors − Where the database system itself terminates
an active transaction because the DBMS is not able to execute it,
or it has to stop because of some system condition.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
2. System Crash
There are problems external to the system that may cause the
system to stop abruptly and cause the system to crash. For
example, interruptions in power supply may cause the failure of
underlying hardware or software failure.
3. Disk Failure
A common problem where hard-disk drives or storage drives fail.
Disk failures include formation of bad sectors, unreachability to
the disk, disk head crash or any other failure, which destroys all
or a part of disk storage.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Database Recovery
There are two types of techniques, which can help a DBMS in
recovering
I. Maintaining the logs of each transaction, and writing them onto
some stable storage before actually modifying the database.
II. Maintaining shadow paging, where the changes are done on a
volatile memory, and later, the actual database is updated.
DATA INTEGRITY, SECURITY, AND PRIVACY
Data Integrity
Accuracy of Data
Quality of data entered determines the quality of
generated information
Data Validation
Process of ensuring that data entered into the database is valid
Record validation rules
Checks all fields before changes to a record are saved
Can be enforced on a per transaction basis so the entire transaction
will fail if one part is invalid
Database Locking
• Prevents two individuals from changing the same data
at the same time
Data Security
– Protects data against destruction and misuse
– Protects against unauthorized access to and unauthorized use
of a database
– Database activity monitoring programs can be used to detect
possible intrusions and risks
– Prevents data loss
– Should include strict backup and disaster-recovery procedures
(disaster-recovery plan)
– Should be used with both in-house and cloud databases
BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE
In modern businesses, increasing standards, automation, and
technologies have led to vast amounts of data becoming available.
Business intelligence has now become the art of sifting through
large amounts of data, extracting pertinent information, and
turning that information into knowledge upon which actions can be
taken
Business intelligence is a broad category of applications and
technologies for gathering, providing access to, and analyzing data
for the purpose of helping enterprise users make better business
decisions Merring (2015).
Business intelligence tools enable users to analyze data to see
new patterns, relationships, and insights that are useful for guiding
decision making.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Objectives of Business Intelligence include
1. Understanding a firm's internal and external strengths and
weaknesses
2. Understanding the relationship between different data for
better decision making
3. Detection of opportunities for innovation
4. Cost reduction
5. Optimal deployment of resources
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Business Intelligence
Three key techniques
1. Data warehousing
2. Data mining
3. Multidimensional Data Analysis
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Data warehouse
Stores data that have been extracted from the various
operational, external and other databases of an organization.
It is a central source of data that has been cleaned, transformed,
and cataloged so that they can be used by managers and other
business professionals for analysis.
This acquisition process include activities like filtering out
unwanted data, consolidating data from several sources,
correcting incorrect data and converting data to new data
elements.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Data warehouse
data is:
Subject-oriented as the warehouse is organized around the
major subjects of the enterprise (such as customers, products,
and sales)
Non-volatile- Once data is in the data warehouse, it will not
change. Data in a data warehouse should never be altered
Time-variant- Historical data is kept in a data warehouse,
therefore data in the warehouse is only accurate and valid at
some point in· time or over some time interval.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Benefits of Data Warehouse
Improved and easy accessibility to information.
Ability to model and remodel the data.
Access data as often as need without affecting the performance
of the operational systems.
Better enterprise intelligence.
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Data marts
Subset of data warehouse
Summarized or highly focused portion of firm’s data for use
by specific population of users
Typically focuses on single subject or line of business eg
information about a specific department or a business process
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Multidimensional Data Analysis
Sometimes managers need to analyze data in ways that cannot
be represented by traditional database models. Such analysis
requires multidimensional view of data.
To provide this type of information, organization can use either a
specialized multidimensional database or a tool that creates
multidimensional views of data in relational databases.
Multi-dimensional Data Analysis (MDDA) refers to the process of
summarizing data across multiple levels (called dimensions) and
then presenting the results in a multi-dimensional grid format
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Multi-Dimensional Analysis is an Informational Analysis on data
which takes into account many different relationships, each of
which represents a dimension.
For example, a retail analyst may want to understand the
relationships among sales by region, by quarter, by demographic
distribution (income, education level, gender), by product. Multi-
dimensional analysis will yield results for these complex
relationships.
MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA:
A UNIVERSITY SAMPLE DATA CUBE
Module Average Mark
Bus Statistics of Alex in Year 1.
Fin Acc MIS O.B Avg
t
en
ud Alex
Ruvimbo Year 1
St
Tinashe
Year 2
Time
Year 3
Avg
40
Students’ marks as a function of student, department, and year
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Data Mining
Tools for analyzing large pools of data with the intention of
discovering hidden patterns that are valid, non-obvious to the
system, useful and understandable.
The types of information obtainable from data mining include
associations, sequences, classifications, clusters, and forecasts.
Associations are occurrences linked to a single event.
In sequences, events are linked over time.
Classification recognizes patterns that describe the group to
which an item belongs by examining existing items that have
been classified and by inferring a set of rules.
Clustering A data mining tool can discover different groupings
within data
FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Examples:
Credit ratings/targeted marketing:
Given a database of 100,000 names, which persons are
the least likely to default on their credit cards?
Identify likely responders to sales promotions
Amazon.com uses associations. Recommendations to
customers are based on past purchases and what other
customers are purchasing.
