BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
UNIT –
I
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Base units:
◦meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A)
◦also: kelvin, mole, and candela

Derived units:
◦work or energy: joule (J)
◦power (rate of doing work): watt (W)
◦1 W = 1 J/s
 Any measurement can be expressed in
terms of a unit, or a unit with a ―prefix‖
FACTOR modifier. NAME SYMBOL
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro μ
10-3 milli m

103 kilo k

106 mega M

Example: 12.3 mW = 0.0123 W =1.23 x 10-2W

□ charge is conserved: it is neither creatednor
destroyed
□ symbol: Q or q; units are coulomb (C)
□ the smallest charge, the electronic charge, is

carried by an electron (−1.602×10-19 C) or a proton

(+1.602×10-19 C)
□ in most circuits, the charges in motion are electrons
 Current is the rate of charge flow:
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second (or 1 A = 1 C/s)
□ Current (designated by I or i) is the rate of flow of
charge
□ Current must be designated with both a direction and
a magnitude
□ These two currents are the same:
 When 1 J of work is required
to move 1 C of charge from
A to B, there is a voltage of
1 volt between A and B.

 Voltage (V or v) across an
element requires both a
magnitude and a polarity.

 Example: (a)=(b), (c)=(d)

The power required to push a
current i (C/s) into a voltage
v (J/C) is p = vi ( J/s = W).

When power is positive, the

element is absorbing energy.

When power is negative, the

element is supplying energy.
How much power is absorbed by the three elements
above?

Pa = + 6 W, Pb = +6 W, Pc = -20 W.
(Note: (c) is actually supplying power)
□
A circuit element usually has
two terminals (sometimes three
or more).

□
The relationship between the
voltage v across the terminals
and the current i through the
device defines the circuit
element model.
□ An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that will
maintain the specified voltage vs across its
terminals.
□ The current will be determined by other circuit
elements.
□ An ideal current source is a circuit element that
maintains the specified current flow is through its
terminals.
□ The voltage is determined by other circuit elements.
•A voltage source is an idealization (no limit on current) and
generalization (voltage can be time-varying) of a battery.
•A battery supplies a constant ―dc‖ voltage V but in
practice a battery has a maximum power.
Dependent current sources (a) and (b) maintain a current
specified by another circuit variable.

Dependent voltage sources (c) and (d) maintain a

voltage
specified by another circuit variable.
Find the voltage vL in the circuit
below.
□A (linear) resistor is an element for
which
□ v=iR
□ where the constant R is a resistance.
□ The equation is known as ―Ohm’s
Law.‖
□ The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
 (a) typical resistors (b) power
resistor
(c) a 10 TΩ resistor (d) circuit
symbol
For a resistor, the plot of current versus voltage is
a straight line:

In this example, the

slope is 4 A / 8 V or
0.5 Ω-1.

This is the graph for a

2 ohm resistor.
Resistors absorb power: since
v=iR

p=vi = v2/R = i2R

Positive power means the device is absorbingenergy.
Power is always positive for a resistor!
A 560 Ω resistor is connected to a circuit which causesa
current of 42.4 mA to flow through it.
Calculate the voltage across the resistor and the power
it is dissipating.

v = iR = (0.0424)(560) = 23.7 V

p = i 2R = (0.0424)2(560) = 1.007 W
 The resistance of a wire is determined by theresistivity
of the conductor as well as the geometry:

R=ρl/A

[In most cases, the resistance of wires can be assumed to be 0

ohms.]
□ An open circuit between A and Bmeans i=0.
□ Voltage across an open circuit: any value.
□ An open circuit is equivalent to R = ∞ Ω.

□A short circuit between A and B means v=0.

□ Current through a short circuit: any value.
□ A short circuit is equivalent to R = 0 Ω.
□ Fundamental elements
□ Resistor
□ Voltage Source
□ Current Source
□ Air
□ Wire
□ Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current
Laws
□ Resistors in Series
□ Voltage Division
□ Voltage is the difference in electric potential between
two points. To express this difference, we label a
avoltage
―+‖ and
with―-‖ : b
a
Here, V1 is the potential at ―a‖ 1.5V
minus the potential at ―b‖, which is + V1 -
□ -1.5 V. is the flow of positive charge. Current has a
Current
value and a direction, expressed by an arrow:
Here, i1 is the current that flowsright;
i1 is negative if current actually flowsleft. i1
□ These are ways to place a frame of reference in
your analysis.
 □
Resistor
Current is proportional to voltage (linear)
□Ideal Voltage Source
Voltage is a given quantity, current is
unknown
□Wire (Short Circuit)
Voltage is zero, current is unknown
□Ideal Current Source
Current is a given quantity, voltage is
unknown
□Air (Open Circuit)
Current is zero, voltage is unknown
□ The resistor has a current- i
voltage relationship called +
Ohm’s law:
v=iR
where R is the resistance in Ω,
R v
i is the current in A, and v is the
voltage in V, with reference 
directions as pictured.
□ If R is given, once you know i, it is easy to find v and
vice- versa.

□ Since R is never negative, a resistor always absorbs

power…
□ The ideal voltage source explicitly 
Vs
defines the voltage between its 
terminals.
Constant (DC) voltage source: Vs = 5 V
Time-Varying voltage source: Vs = 10 sin(t) V
Examples: batteries, wall outlet, function
generator, …
□
The ideal voltage source
does not provide any information about the current flowing
through it.
□
The current through the
voltage source is defined by the rest of the circuit to which
the source is attached. Current cannot be determined by the
value of the voltage.
□ Wire has a very small resistance.
□
For simplicity, we will idealize wire in the following
way: the potential at all points on a piece of wire is
the same, regardless of the current going through it.
Wire is a 0 V voltage source
Wire is a 0 Ω resistor
□ This idealization (and others) can lead to
contradictions on paper—and smoke in lab.
□ The ideal current source sets the
value of the current running through it. Is
Constant (DC) current source:
Is = 2 A
Time-Varying current source: Is = -3 sin(t) A
Examples: few in real life!
□The ideal current source has known current, but
unknown voltage.
□
The voltage across the
voltage source is defined by the rest of the circuit to
which the source is attached.
□Voltage cannot be determined by the value of the
current.
□ Many of us at one time, after walking on a carpet in
winter, have touched a piece of metal and seen a blue arc
of light.
□ That arc is current going through the air. So is a bolt
of lightning during a thunderstorm.
□ However, these events are unusual. Air is usually a
good insulator and does not allow current to flow.
□ For simplicity, we will idealize air in the following
way: current never flows through air (or a hole in a
circuit), regardless of the potential difference (voltage)
present.
Air is a 0 Acurrent source
Air is a very very big (infinite) resistor
□ There can be nonzero voltage over air or a hole in a
 i i i

v v v

Resistor: Line Ideal Voltage Ideal Current

through origin with Source: Source:
slope 1/R Vertical line Horizontal
line
Wire: Vertical Air Horizontal
line : line
through origin through
□
The I-V relationship for a device tells us how
current and voltage are related within that device.
□ Kirchhoff’s laws tell us how voltages relate to other
voltages in a circuit, and how currents relate to other
currents in a circuit.
□ KVL: The sum of voltage drops around a closedpath
must equal zero.
□ KCL: The sum of currents leaving a closed surface
or point must equal zero.
□ Suppose I add up the potential drops b
a + -
Vab
around the closed path, from ―a‖ to ―b‖ to +
―c‖ and back to ―a‖.
Vb
□
Since I end where I began, the total -
c
drop in potential I encounter along
path must be zero: Vab + Vbc + Vca = the c
□
0 It would not make sense to say, for example, ―b‖ is 1 V
lower than ―a‖, ―c‖ is 2 V lower than ―b‖, and ―a‖ is 3
V lower than ―c‖. I would then be saying that ―a‖ is 6
Vlower than ―a‖, which is nonsense!
□
We can use potential rises throughout instead of
potential drops; this is an alternative statement of KVL.
□A voltage rise is a negative voltage drop.
Pat +
Along a path, I might encounter a voltage
h V
which is labeled as a voltage drop (in the
direction I’m going). The sum of these -
Pat 1
voltage drops must equal zero. h +
I might encounter a voltage which is labeled
as a voltage rise (in the direction I’m going). V-2
This rise can be viewed as a ―negative
drop‖. Rewrite:
□Look at the first sign you encounter on

each element when tracing the closed path. Pat +

If it is a ―-‖, it is a voltage rise and you will h
insert a ―-‖ to rewrite as a drop. -V2
-
 a b c
What does + v2  v3
KVL say about 1 2
the voltages + + +
v v vc
along these 3 
a b- 
paths?
3
Path  va  v2  vb
1:

Path
0
2:

Path
 vb  v3  v  vcv 
3:
3 c
0 0
□ KVL tells us that any set of elements whichare
connected at both ends carry the same voltage.
□ We say these elements are in parallel.

KVL clockwise, start at top:

Vb – Va = 0

Va =
Vb
□ Electrons don’t just disappear or get trapped (inour
analysis).
□ Therefore, the sum of all current entering a closed
surface or point must equal zero—whatever goes in
must come out.
□ Remember that current leaving a closed surface can be
interpreted as a negative current entering:

i1 is the -i1
same
statement
as
 In order to satisfy KCL, what is the value of
i?
KCL says:
24 μA+ -10 μA + (-)-4 μA+ -i =0

24 -4
18 μA – i =
A A
0
i = 18 μA 10 i
A
□ Suppose two elements are connected with nothing coming
off in between.
□ KCL says that the elements carry the same current.
□ We say these elements are in series.

i1 – i2 = i1 =
0 i2
□ Consider resistors in series. This means they are
attached end-to-end, with nothing coming off in
between.
i
R1 R2 R3
+ i + -
+
R1 - VTOTAL -
□ Each resistor has the samei current (labeled+i).
R2 given by Ohm’s
□ Each resistor has voltage iR,
i R3
law.
□ The total voltage drop across all 3 resistors is
-
VTOTAL = i R1 + i R2 + i R3 = i (R1 + R2 + R3)
i

R1 R2 R3
+ v -
□ When we look at all three resistors together as one
unit, we see that they have the same I-V relationship
as one resistor, whose value is the sum of the
resistances:
So we
□ just onecan treat theseresistance,
equivalent resistors asas
long as we are not interested in the i
individual voltages. Their effect
on the rest of the circuit is the R1 + R 2 +
same, whether lumped together or R3
not. + v
-
□ If we know the total voltage over a series of resistors, we
can easily find the individual voltages over the
individual resistors.

R1 R2 R3
+ i i R3
+ + i R2
R1 - VTOTAL -
□ Since the resistors in series have the
- same -current, the
voltage divides up among the resistors
+ in proportion
to each individual resistance.
□ For example, weknow
i = R2 + R3)
VTOTAL / (R1 +
so the voltage over the first resistor
iisR1 = (R1 R2 + R3)
R1 VTOTAL /
+
R1

□ ToVfind the voltage
R1  R2 over an
TOTAL
individual resistance in series, take
R3
the total series voltage and multiply
by the individual resistance over the
total resistance.
□ Introduction
□ What are P-type and N-
type semiconductors??
□ What are Diodes?
□ Forward Bias & Reverse Bias
□ Characteristics Of Ideal
Diode
□ Shockley Equation
□ I – V Characteristics of

Diodes
 Semiconductors are
materials whose
electrical properties lie
between Conductors and
Insulators.
Ex : Silicon and Germanium
□ Semiconductors are classified in to P-type
and N-type semiconductor
□
P-type: A P-type
material is one in which holes are majority
carriers i.e. they are positively charged
materials ( + + + + )
□ N-type: A N-type material is
one in which
electrons are majority charge carriers i.e.
they are negatively charged materials ( - -
---)
Electronic devices created by bringing
together a p-type and n-type region
within the same semiconductor lattice.
Used for rectifiers, LED etc
 It is represented by the following
symbol, where the arrow indicates the
direction of
positive current flow.
□ Forward Bias : Connect positive of the
Diode to positive of supply…
negative of Diode to negative of supply
□ Reverse Bias: Connect positive of the
Diode to negative of supply…
negative of diode to positive of supply.
□ Diode always conducts in one direction.
□ Diodes always conduct current when
“Forward Biased” ( Zero resistance)
□ Diodes do not conduct
when Reverse Biased
(Infinite resistance)
I-V Characteristics of Practical
Diode
□ Convertingac to dc is accomplished by
the process of rectification.
□ Two processes are used:
◦ Half-wave rectification;
◦ Full-wave rectification.
□ Simplest process
used to convert
ac to dc.
□ A diode is used to

clip the input

signal excursions
of one
polarity to zero.
   kT
iD  s  ex  vD  VT
nV 1 q
I p  T   
VT  26mV
Is is the saturation current ~10 -14
Vd is the diode voltage
n – emission coefficient (varies from 1 - 2 )
k = 1.38 × 10–23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant
q = 1.60 × 10–19 C is the electrical charge of an
electron.
At a temperature of 300 K, we have
 The Bipolar Junction
BJT Transistor

E n p n C E p n p C

C C
B B

E E

• Collector doping is usually ~ 106

• Base doping is slightly higher ~ 107
– 108
• Emitter doping is much higher ~
15
 BJT Relationships
Equations
IE IC IE IC
- VCE + -
E C E VEC
+ C
- -
+ +
VBE IB VBC IB
VEB VCB
+ + - -
B B

npn pnp
IE = I B + I C IE = I B + I C
VCE = -VBC +
VEC = VEB - VCB
VBE

Note: The equations seen above are

for the
transistor, not the circuit.
DC  and DC

 = Common-emitter current
gain
 = Common-base
IC  = IC current
gain IB IE

The relationships between the two

parameters are:
=  = 
+1 1-
Note:  and  are sometimes referred to as dc becaus
and dc e
the relationships being dealt with in the BJT
are DC.

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia

TechEE Spring 2002
 BJT
UsingExample
Common-Base NPN Circuit
Configuration
C Given: IB = 50  A , IC = 1
mA
+
_
IC Find: IE ,  , and 
VCB
Solutio
IB n:
B IE = BI + CI = 0.05 mA + 1 mA =
1.05 mA
 = IC / IB = 1 mA / 0.05 mA = 20
+
_ IE
VBE
 = IC / IE = 1 mA / 1.05 mA = 0.95238

E  could also be calculated using the value of

 with the formula from the previous slide.

=  = 20 =
0.95238
+ 21
1
 BJT Transconductance
Curve
Typical NPN Transistor
1

Collector Current:
IC IC =  IES eVBE/VT
Transconductance
:
8
g m= 
(slope of the IC / 
mA curve) VBE
IES = The reverse saturation
6 current
mA of the B-E Junction.
VT = kT/q = 26 mV (@
4 T=300K)
mA  = the emission
coefficient and is
2 usually ~1
mA

0.7 VBE
V
 Modes of
Operation
Activ • Most important mode of operation
• Central to amplifier operation
e: • The region where current curves are
practically flat

Saturatio • Barrier potential of the junctions cancel each other out

n: causinga virtual short

Cutof • Current reduced to zero

f: • Ideal transistor behaves like an open
switch

* Note: There is also a mode of operation

called
inverse active, but it is rarely used.
 Three Types of BJT
Biasing
Biasing the transistor refers to applying voltage to get the
transistorto achieve certain operating conditions.

Common-Base Biasing (CB) : input = VEB & IE

output = VCB & IC

Common-Emitter Biasing (CE): input = VBE & IB

output = VCE & IC

Common-Collector Biasing input = VBC & IB

(CC):
output = VEC & IE

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia

TechEE Spring 2002
 Common
Base
Although the Common-Base configuration is not the most
commonbiasing
type, it is often helpful in the understanding of how the BJT
works.
Emitter-Current Curves

IC

Active Region

IE

Cutof
f
IE = 0

VCB
 Common-
Base
Circuit Diagram: NPN C
IC VCE IE
E
Transistor

VCB VBE
The Table Below lists assumptions
IB
that can be made for the
attributes of the common-base
biased circuit in the different
regions of operation. Given for a B
Silicon NPN transistor.
VCB VBE

Region of C-B E-
IC V V
Operation VCE
B
BE CB Bias
Bias
Active IB =VBE+VCE ~0.7V  0V Rev. Fwd.
Saturation Max ~0V ~0.7V -0.7V<VCE<0 Fwd. Fwd.

Cutoff ~0 =VBE+VCE  0V  0V Rev.

None
 Common-
Circuit Diagram
Emitter Collector-Current
IC VCE Curves
IC

+
VCC _ IB Active

Regio
n
IB
Region of Description
Operation

Active Small base current VCE

controls a large
collector current Saturation Region
Cutoff Region
Saturation VCE(sat) ~ 0.2V,VCE
increases with IC IB = 0

Cutoff Achieved by reducing

IB to 0, Ideally, IC will
also equal 0.
 Common
Collector Emitter-Current
Curves
The Common-Collector IE
biasing circuit is
basically equivalent to
the common- emitter
biased circuit except
instead of looking at IC
as a function of VCE and
IB we are looking at IE. IB
Also, since  ~ 1, and 
= IC/IE that means IC~IE

VCE

Saturation
Region Cutoff
Region
IB = 0
 Eber-Moll BJT
Model
The Eber-Moll Model for BJTs is fairly complex, but it is
valid in all regions of BJT operation. The circuit diagram
below shows all the components of the Eber-Moll Model:

E IE IC
C

RIC RIE

IF IR

IB

B
 Eber-Moll BJT
Model
R = Common-base current gain (in forward active mode)
F = Common-base current gain (in inverse active mode)
IES = Reverse-Saturation Current of B-E Junction
ICS = Reverse-Saturation Current of B-CJunction

IC = FIF – IR IB = IE - IC IE = IF - RIR

IF = IES [exp(qVBE/kT) – 1]IR = IC [exp(qVBC/kT) – 1]

If IES & ICS are not given, they can be determined using various
BJT parameters.
 Small Signal BJT Equivalent
The small-signal model can beCircuit
used when the BJT is in the active region.
The small-
signal active-region model for a CB circuit is shown below:
iB iC
B C

r iB

r = ( + 1) * iE
VT IE
@  = 1 and T = E
25C
r = ( + 1) * Recall:
0.026  = IC /
IE IB
 The Early Effect (Early
Note: Common- Voltage)I C

Emitter
Configurati
on

IB

-VA
VCE

Green = Ideal IC
Orange = Actual IC
(IC’)

IC’ = IC VCE + 1
VA
 Early Effect
Example
Given: The common-emitter circuit below with I B = VCC =
25A, 15V,
 = 100 and VA= 80.
Find: a) The ideal collector current
b) The actual collector current

Circuit
VCE
Diagram IC  = 100 =C I
/I
a B

)IC = 100 * IB = 100 *

+ (25x10-6 A)
VCC _ IB
IC = 2.5 mA

b) IC’ = IC VCE + = 15 + = 2.96

1 2.5x10-3 1 mA
VA 80
IC’ = 2.96 mA