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Pceet303 Module 1

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
12 views146 pages

Pceet303 Module 1

Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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You are on page 1/ 146

PCEET303:DC

Machines
& Transformers
Mrs.Nisha Kuriakose
Assistant Professor
CEMP
MODULE-1
• Constructional details of dc machines - armature winding - lap
and wave – simplex, progressive only – winding diagrams of simplex,
lap wound, double layer, 12-slot, 4-pole, dc armature with 12
commutator segments – winding diagram of simplex wave wound,
double layer, 16-slot, 6-pole, dc armature with 12 commutator
segments (winding diagram not for evaluation)
• DC generator - principle of operation of DC generator – emf
equation – numerical problems ,Classification DC generators – steady-
state equations – numerical problems
• DC shunt generator - no-load characteristics – critical field resistance,
critical speed, voltage build-up - load characteristics – numerical
problems
• Armature reaction - cross magnetising & demagnetising effect
(computation of ampere-turns not required) – compensating winding –
interpoles – commutation (concept only) – numerical problems
• Power flow diagram – losses and efficiency – maximum efficiency -
numerical problems Parallel operation of DC shunt generators –
load sharing – numerical problems
DC Generator-Introduction
• A DC generator is an electromechanical
energy conversion device that converts
mechanical power into DC electrical
power through the process of electromagnetic
induction

• A DC generator is an electrical machine whose


main function is to convert mechanical energy
into electricity.
DC Generator-Working
Principle
• A DC generator operates on the principle of
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
• According to Faraday’s law, whenever a conductor
is placed in a fluctuating magnetic field (or when a
conductor is moved in a magnetic field) an EMF is
induced in the conductor.
• The EMF induced in the armature winding
of a DC generator is alternating one and is
converted into direct voltage using a
commutator mounted on the shaft of the
generator.
• Stator is the stationary part of dc machine
—--armature winding of DC Generator is
placed on it
• Rotor is the rotating part of dc machine
—----field winding is placed on it
DC Generator-Construction
DC Generator-Construction-Main
parts
⮚ Yoke or Frame
⮚ Stator
⮚ Rotor
⮚ Poles: Pole cores & Pole shoes
⮚ Armature core
⮚ Armature winding
⮚ Field coils/ Field windings or Pole winding
⮚ Commutator
⮚ Brushes
DC Generator-Construction
1) Yoke:
• It is the outer frame of a DC generator
• It is a hollow cylinder made up of cast
steel or rolled steel .
• The main functions of yoke are:
⮚ It Carry the magnetic flux produced by the poles
⮚ It provides support for main poles and inter poles
⮚ It provide protection for whole machine
2) Stator :
▪ The stationary part of the machine
▪ It acts as the magnetic field system of a DC generator .
▪ It produces the main magnetic flux in the generator.
▪It consists of an even number of pole cores bolted to the yoke
and field winding wound around the pole core.
▪ The field system of DC generator has salient poles
( projecting poles)
▪To reduce the eddy current losses ,silicon steel laminations
are used for its construction
.
3) Rotor :
▪ A rotor is a cylindrical laminated armature core with slots.
▪ In a DC generator, the armature’s rotation is the process
that generates a voltage in the rotor coils
▪ It made of slotted iron laminations
4) Poles:
▪ It has 2 parts:1) Pole Core & 2) Pole shoes
▪ Pole Core : the pole core is of small cross-sectional area and its function is to just
hold the pole shoe over the yoke
▪ It is made up of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss.
▪ The field coils are connected in series with one another such that when the current
flows through the coils, alternate north and south poles are produced in the direction of
rotation.
▪ The pole shoe: serves two purposes
• It provides support to the field coils.
• It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of it.
5)Pole winding/Field winding:
• The pole winding and field coils consist of copper
wire placed in position around the pole core.
• When current passes through these coils, they electro-
magnetize the pole which produces the magnetic flux.
• This flux passes through the rotor and produces a
rotating torque as soon as the current starts flowing in
the armature of the rotor.
6)Armature Core
• It is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field poles.
• It has slots on its outer surface and the armature
conductors are placed in these slots.
• The armature core is a made up of soft iron laminations
which are insulated from each other and tightly clamped
together.
• In small machines, the laminations are keyed directly to the
shaft, whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a
spider.
• The laminated armature core is used to reduce the eddy
current loss.
7)Armature Winding
• The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The
conductors are suitably connected. This connected arrangement of
conductors is known as armature winding.
• It made with several low-hysteresis silicon steel lamination, to reduce
the magnetic losses like hysteresis and eddy current loss respectively
• There are two types of armature windings are used – wave winding and lap
winding.
• Lap Winding:
• In lap winding, the conductors are joined in such a way that their parallel
paths and poles are equal in number.
• The end of each armature coil is connected to the adjacent segment on the
commutator.
• The number of brushes in the lap winding is equal to the number of parallel
paths, and these brushes are equally divided into negative and positive
polarity.
.
• Wave Winding
• In wave winding, only two parallel paths are provided
between the positive and negative brushes.
• The finishing end of the one armature coil is connected to
the starting end of the other armature coil commutator
segment at some distance apart.
• In this winding, the conductors are connected to two
parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles of the
machine.
• The number of brushes is equal to the number of parallel
paths.
• The wave winding is mainly used in high voltage, low
current machines.
8)Commutator
• A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts
the alternating emf generated in the armature
winding into the direct voltage across the load
terminals.
• The commutator is made of wedge-shaped copper
segments insulated from each other and from the
shaft by mica sheets.
• Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of
the armature coils
9)Brushes
• The brushes are mounted on the
commutator and are used to collect the
current from the armature winding.
• The brushes are made of carbon and is
supported by a metal box called brush
holder.
• external circuit through the commutator
and carbon brushes.
EMF Equation of Dc generator
• Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly
proportional to the speed and flux per pole.
• The polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction
of the magnetic field and the direction of rotation.
• If either of the two is reversed the polarity changes, but if
two are reversed the polarity remains unchanged.
DC Generator -Classification
Separately Excited DC Generator

• A separately excited DC generator is the one


whose field winding is supplied by an
independent external DC source (like a battery).
• The magnitude of generated voltage depends upon the
speed of rotation of armature and the field current, i.e.,
greater the speed and the field current, higher is the
generated voltage.
• In practice, the separately excited DC generators are
rarely used.
Armature current ,Ia =IL
Terminal voltage,VT=Eg−IaRa
Developed electric power = EgIa
Power delivered to
load=EgIa−I2aRa=VTIa=VT
Self-Excited DC Generator

• A self-excited DC generator is the one whose


field winding is excited by the current from the
output of the generator itself.
• Depending upon the connection of field winding with
the armature, the self-excited DC generators are of
three types −
• Series Generator
• Shunt Generator
• Compound Generator
Series Generator

• In case of a series generator, the field winding is


connected in series with the armature of the
generator so that whole armature current would
flow through the field winding as well as the load.
• Since the load current flows through the field winding of
the generator, so the field winding has a few turns of
thick wire having low resistance.
• The DC series generators are used in special applications
like boosters.
Shunt Generator

• In case of a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in


parallel with the armature of the generator so that
terminal voltage of the generator is applied across it.

• The shunt field winding has many turns of thin wire having
high resistance so that only a fraction of armature current flows
through the shunt field winding and the rest flows through the
load.
Compound Generator

• In case of a compound generator, there are two


field winding on each pole – one is in series and the
other is in parallel with the armature.
• The DC compound generators are of two types
Short Shunt Compound Generator
Long Shunt Compound Generator

• In a long shunt generator, the shunt field winding is


connected in parallel with both series field and armature
winding.
• In compound generator, the majority of
MMF is established by the shunt field
winding.
• If the series field flux assists the
shunt field then the generator is
called cumulatively compounded and
when they oppose each other, the
generator is called differentially
compounded.
Losses in DC Machines
Copper Losses (Electrical Losses)

• Electrical losses in a DC generator are also known as copper losses


which occur due to resistance of the armature windings and the field
(series and shunt) windings.
• The copper loss can be classified into the following three categories.
• Armature Copper Loss (Ia2Ra): Losses occur in the armature winding
• Shunt Copper Loss (Ish2Rsh): Losses occur in the shunt field winding
• Series Copper Loss (Ise2Rse): Losses occur in the series field winding
• Total Cu. Loss = Ia2Ra + Ish2Rsh + Ise2Rse
Iron Core Losses (Magnetic Losses)

• The iron or core losses (also known as magnetic losses) can be


categorized as follows:
• Hysteresis Losses
• When the excited armature rotates in a defined direction, the
amount of flux changes again and again due to the changes in the
direction of rotation.
• For this reason, losses occur during the armature operation which
is known as hysterias loss.
• These losses depend on the maximum value of flux density and
the frequency of reversal of magnetism.
• These losses can be calculated using the following formula.
• Hysteresis Losses = WH ∝ BMax1.6 fV
• Where:
• WH = Hysteresis Losses
• BMax = Maximum flux density
• f = Frequency
• V = Volume of the core
• There is no way to minimize the hysteresis loss except to use a
material (such as metal, iron) for the core having low coefficient of
hysteresis.
• Eddy Current Losses
• When a conductor cuts a magnetic field (flux linkage), then EMF is
induced according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
• This way, when the armature rotates in the magnetic field, an EMF
induced in it but an additional EMF induced in the laminated core.
• Although the amount of additional EMF is very small, it drives high
current (which is known as eddy current) because of the low resistance
of the core as the area of core is comparably large enough.
• Eddy Current Losses = WE ∝ BMax2f2t2V
• Where:
• WE = Eddy Current Losses
• BMax = Maximum flux density
• f = Frequency
• t = Width of limitation
• V = Volume of the core
• As the above formula shows that the eddy current losses are directly
proportional to the square of the width of each lamination, thus it can be
minimized to reduce the size of laminated core.
Frictional & Windage Losses (Mechanical Losses)

• These losses are also known as rotational or mechanical losses in


the DC generator which can be categorized as follow:
• Brush Friction Losses:
• The power loss occurs due to the friction between surfaces of
brush and commutator is known to be the brush friction loss.
• Bearing Friction Losses:
• The loss occurs due to the friction on both bearings connected to
the shaft is known to be the bearing friction loss.
• The losses increase when the grease in the bearing wastes,
deteriorates or dries out.
• Windage Losses:
• The power losses occur due to the friction between rotating armature
and air is known as windage loss or air friction loss.
• This is because the armature needs to be pushed against the wind to
rotate.
• Hence, total losses of the DC generator can be defined as follow:
• Total Losses = Variable Losses + Constant Losses
• Where:
• Constant Losses = Iron & friction losses and shunt field losses in shunt
and compound DC generators.
• Variable Losses = I2R losses in the armature, series winding and
interpole windings.

❑ Frictional losses + magnetic losses e.g. (mechanical losses + magnetic


losses) are known as stray losses.
Power Stages in DC Generator

• When a DC generator converts input mechanical power into


output electrical power, there are some losses during energy
conversion. For this reason, the output of the generator is always
less than the input. All the generator’s losses during the energy
conversion in the machine at different stages is known as power
stages of the DC generator as shown in fig below.
• A – B = Iron and friction losses
• B – C = Copper losses
• Mechanical Efficiency = ηM = B / A = EIa / (B.H.P × 746)
• Electrical Efficiency = ηE = C / B = VI / EIa
• Overall (Commercial) Efficiency = ηC = C / A = VI / (B.H.P × 746)
Efficiency of DC Generator
• The efficiency of a machine is defined as a ratio of output and
input. It is denoted by the symbol of “η” and expressed in
percentage “%”.
• Efficiency = η = (Output / Input) × 100
• There are some losses in each machine, this way; the output is
always less than the input. e.g.
• Output = Input – Losses
• Input = Output + Losses
• Therefore, the efficiency can also be determined as follows:
• Efficiency = η = (Output / (Output + Losses)) × 100
• Efficiency = η = (Input – Losses) / Input)) × 100
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
• The efficiency of a DC generator will be maximum when the constant and
variable losses become equal.
• Mathematically
• Generator output = VI
• Generator Input = Output + Losses
• Putting the values of output and losses
• = VI + Ia2Ra + WC … (Where Wc is constant losses)
• = VI + (I + ISh)2 Ra + Wc … (Ia = I + ISh)
• The value of shunt current (ISh) is too small as compared to the load
current (I), thus, it can be neglected.
• Efficiency = η = Output ÷ Input
• = VI ÷ (VI + Ia2 Ra + Wc)
• = VI ÷ (VI + I2 Ra + Wc) … (∴ Ia = I)
• Multiplying the above equation (all values) and dividing by VI:
• η = (VI ÷ VI) ÷ ((VI ÷ VI) + (I2 Ra ÷ VI) + (Wc ÷ VI))))
• η = 1 ÷ ((1) + (IRa ÷ V) + (Wc ÷ VI))))
• It shows the efficiency will be maximum when the denominator is
minimum. That’s mean
• d/dI (IRa ÷ V) + (Wc ÷ VI) = 0
• Differentiating the above equation w.r.t “I”.
• = (Ra ÷ V) – (Wc ÷ VI2) = 0
• = (Ra ÷ V) = (Wc ÷ VI2) = 0
• I2RaV = WcV
• I2Ra = Wc
• The above calculations prove that the efficiency will be maximum once the variable
and constant losses of the generator become equal to each other.
• Variable Losses = Constant Losses
• The load current at maximum efficiency can be calculated using the following formula.
• I = √(Wc ÷ Ra) … or
• I2 Ra = Wc
Basic concept of armature
reaction
Armature Reaction
• The current flowing through the armature conductors creates

a magnetic field around it, which is called as armature flux.


• This armature flux distorts and weakens the magnetic flux
produced by the main poles.
• This effect of armature flux on the main flux is known as

armature reaction.
Terminologies:M.N.A. & G.N.A.

• M.N.A.-Magnetic Neutral Axis:Axis that bisects


the angle between the centre line of adjacent poles
• To achieves sparkless commutation ,the brushes
must lie along M.N.A.
• G.N.A.-Geometrical Neutral Axis: Axis drawn
perpendicular to the mean direction of the flux
passing through the centre of the armature.
• No emf is produced in the armature conductors
along this axis because then they cut no flux.
Case 1: Consider a two pole generator on
no-load
• Under this condition, there is only the main flux
(φm) in the machine which is produced by the
main poles
• The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) coincides with
the geometrical neutral axis (GNA).
• The brushes are always placed along MNA,
hence the MNA is also called as axis of
commutation.
Case 2:Consider the armature carrying current with no
current in the field coils
• The direction of flux produced by the current in the
armature conductors may be determined by cork-screw
rule.
• The conductors under the N-pole carry current in the
direction into(x) the plane of paper. Thus, the flux
produced by the conductors under the N-pole is in the
downward direction.
• Similarly, the conductors under the S-pole carry current
in the direction out of the plane of paper. These
conductors also produce a flux which is directed
downward.
• Therefore, all the armature conductor produces a flux
through the armature in the downward direction. This
flux is known as armature flux (φA).
Case 3:This case shows the condition when the field current
and armature currents are acting simultaneously.
• There are two fluxes inside the machine, one is produced by
the main field poles of the generator and the other by the
current in the armature conductors. These two fluxes combine
to give a resultant flux (φR).
• it can be seen that the main flux entering the armature is
shifted and distorted.
• The distortion increases the flux density in the upper pole tip of
the N-pole and in the lower pole tip of the S-pole. Similarly,
there is a decrease in the flux density in the lower pole tip of
the N-pole and in the upper pole tip of the S-pole. Therefore,
the direction of the resultant flux has shifted in the direction of
rotation of the generator.
• Since the MNA is always perpendicular to the axis of the
resultant flux, hence the MNA is also shifted.
• Due to the non-linear behaviour and saturation of the core,
the increase in the flux in one pole tip is less than the
decrease in the flux in the other pole tip. This results in, the
main flux is decreased. Consequently, the generated emf
(Eg ∝ Nφm) is decreased with the increase in load.
• To achieve sparkless commutation,brushes are also
gets shifted to a new position and lies along with
the M.N.A.
• The brush position shifts in the same direction as
the direction of rotation of the armature.
• This will cause the redistribution of armature
conductors and hence armature current.
• Some armature conductors under the influence of
the North pole will come under the influence of
South pole and vice-versa.
• The armature MMF vector OFa is not vertical but
inclined at an angle θ.
• The vector OFa can be resolved into two components,
OFd parallel to the polar axis and OFc perpendicular to
the polar axis.
● The horizontal component OFd is in direct opposition
of OFm. This has a demagnetizing effect on the main
field flux. Hence called a demagnetizing component or
weakening component of armature reaction.
● The vertical component OFc is at the right angle to
OFm. It distorts the main field and hence cross
magnetization effect results, which is said to be the
distorting component of armature reaction.
Effects of Armature Reaction

The armature reaction in a DC generator causes the following


adverse effects

● Due to decrease in value of flux per pole,the armature reaction


results in reduction of generated emf
● Due to distortion in main field flux the maximum density at
load increases above no load.Thus iron losses are more on load
than no load.
● Bmax increases ,it will increase maximum voltage between
adjacent commutator segments ,if this voltage exceeds
30v,sparking may occurs
Remedies to the Armature Reaction Effect

● By increasing airgap length,armature reaction


effect can be reduced
● by using compensating winding armature
reaction effect can be reduced
● by using interpoles armature reaction effect can
be reduced
Points to remember
• If brushes located along the G.N.A.;Then
Fd=0,there is only Fc
• Component Fd weakens the main
flux:Demagnetising effect leads to reduced
generated voltage
• Component Fc distorts the main flux:Cross-
magnetising effect leads to sparking at the
brushes
• Compensating winding is used to neutralise
the cross-magnetising effect of armature
reaction
• Compensating winding:It is an auxiliary
winding placed in the slots in the pole faces
and connected in series with armature so that
direction of current through it will be
Concept of Commutation
● Let us consider a single-turn generator with conductors 1 and
2 connected to the commutator segments A and B with
brushes P and Q.
● Now the direction of flow of current is that segment A with
conductor 1 under the north pole is positive and segment B
with conductor 2 under the south pole will be negative.
● The direction of current to the load is from brush P to Q as

shown in the figure


• After completing a half-cycle the conductors and segments
change their position i.e., segments B becomes positive and
A with negative as shown in the above figure.
• Here we can notice that through the direction of current
changes in the conductors the commutator segments make
unidirectional current to the load i.e., from brush P to Q only.
• it is seen that current in the armature conductors in one
direction when under the influence of one pole.
• The reversal of current takes place in the conductor when it is
under the influence of another pole.
• This reversal of current takes place along the magnetic neutral
axis (M.N.A.) which would be a short interval of time.
• The process in which reversal of current from one
direction to another during the period when a coil is short-
circuited by a brush without any sparking is called
'Commutation'.
• The short-circuited period of the coil with the brush is very short
order of 0.0005 to 0.002 sec, it is termed as 'Commutation
Period'.
• As the conductor passes through the influence of the
north pole and enters the south pole, the current in them
is reversed. The reversal of current takes place along the
MNA or brush axis. When the brush span has two
commutator segments, the winding element connected to
those segments is short-circuited.
• Let us understand Commutation more clearly by
considering 3 coils as shown below in Figure .
• Ideally current through col B is +10A,+5A,0A,-5A,-10A and so on
• Thus the coil B has undergone commutation.
• Each coil undergoes commutation in this way as it passes the
brush axis.

• From all the above discussion, it is seen that during the period of the short
circuit of an armature coil by a brush the current in the coil must be reversed
and also brought up to its full value in the reverse direction. The time of the
short circuit is called the period of commutation.
Ideal Commutation
• Fig shows the current-time graph for the coil A
undergoing commutation.
• The horizontal line AB represents a constant
current of 10 A upto the beginning of
commutation.
• From the finish of commutation, it is represented
by another horizontal line CD on the opposite side
of the zero line and the same distance from it as
AB i.e., the current has exactly reversed (- 10 A).
• The way in which current changes from B to C
depends upon the conditions under which the coil
undergoes commutation.
• If the current changes at a uniform rate (BC
is a straight line), then it is called ideal
commutation as shown in Fig. .
• Under such conditions, no sparking will take place
PRACTICAL COMMUTATION
• The ideal commutation (i.e., straight line change of
current) cannot be attained in practice.
• This is mainly due to the fact that the armature coils
have appreciable inductance.
• When the current in the coil undergoing
commutation changes, self-induced e.m.f. is
produced in the coil. This is generally called
reactance voltage.
• This reactance voltage opposes the change of
current in the coil undergoing commutation.
• The result is that the change of current in the
coil undergoing commutation occurs more slowly
than it would be under ideal commutation. This is
illustrated in below Fig.
• The straight line BC represents the ideal commutation
whereas the curve BE represents the change in current when
self-inductance of the coil is taken into account.
• Note that current CE (= 2A) is flowing from the commutator
segment b to the brush.
• This results in sparking just as when any other current-
carrying circuit is broken.
• The sparking results in overheating of commutator-
brush contact and causing damage to both.
• At the end of commutation or short-circuit period, the current
in coil A is reversed to a value of 8 A (instead of 10 A) due to
inductance of the coil.
• When the brush breaks contact with segment b, the
remaining 2 A current jumps from segment b to the
brush through air causing sparking between segment b
and the brush.
• Thus, the cause of sparking at the commutator is the failure of
the current in the short-circuited elements to reach the full
value in the reverse direction by the end of the short circuit.
This is known as under commutation or delayed
commutation.
Methods of improving
commutation
• Improving commutation means to make
current reversal in the short-circuited coil as
sparkless as possible.
• The following are the two principal methods
of improving commutation:
• (i) Resistance commutation
• (ii) E.M.F. commutation
Resistance commutation
• In this method of improving commutation,the
low resistance copper brushes are replaced
by high resistance carbon brushes

• The other minor advantages of carbon brushes


are:
• (i) The carbon lubricates and polishes the
commutator.
• (ii) If sparking occurs, it damages the
commutator less than with copper brushes and
the damage to the brush itself is of little
importance.
E.M.F. Commutation
• In this method, an arrangement is made to
neutralize the reactance voltage by producing a
reversing voltage in the coil undergoing
commutation.
• The reversing voltage acts in opposition to the
reactance voltage and neutralizes it to some extent.
• If the reversing voltage is equal to the reactance
voltage, the effect of the latter is completely wiped out
and we get sparkless commutation.
• The reversing voltage may be produced in the
following two ways:
(i) By brush shifting
• If the brushes are shifted forward(generator) or
backward (motor),a little beyond to M.N.A.,the short
circuited coil will come under the influence of main
pole of opposite polarity
• This will partially neutralized the reactance voltage
which will help in quick current reversal
• This method is rarely used in practice due to many
practical difficulties such as frequent brush shifting
and increasing effect of demagnetising effect etc.
ii)By using interpoles/compoles

● Interpoles are small poles fixed to the yoke and


spaced mid-way between the main poles
● They are wound with comparatively few turns and
connected in series with the armature so that they
carry armature current.
● Their polarity is the same as the next main pole
ahead in the direction of rotation for a generator
• As their polarity is the same as the main pole ahead
(for a generator), they induce an e.m.f. in the coil
(undergoing commutation) which opposes reactance
voltage.
• This leads to sparkless commutation.
• The e.m.f. induced by compoles is known as
commutating or reversing e.m.f. Since the interpoles
carry the armature current and the reactance voltage
is also proportional to armature current, the
neutralization of reactance voltage is automatic.
• The m.m.f. of the compoles neutralizes the cross-
magnetizing effect of
armature reaction in small region in the space between
the main poles. It is
because the two m.m.f.s oppose each other in this region.
Shunt generator with commutating and
compensating windings
• Both commutating and compensating
windings are connected in series with the
armature and so they carry the armature
current.
• The main function of commutating winding is
to produce reversing (or commutating) e.m.f.
in order to cancel the reactance voltage. In
addition to this, the m.m.f. of the
commutating winding neutralizes the cross-
magnetizing ampere-turns in the space
between the main poles.
• The compensating winding neutralizes the
cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction
Characteristics of shunt
generator
• Shunt Wound DC Generator : A shunt wound DC generator has its
field windings connected in parallel with the armature conductors,
splitting the armature current into shunt field current and load current.
• Magnetic Characteristic: The curve between shunt field current and
no-load voltage shows how the generated emf varies with armature
speed.
• Critical Load Resistance: This is the minimum resistance needed for
the generator to start and keep running.
• Internal Characteristic: The relationship between generated voltage
and load current shows a drop in voltage under load due to armature
reaction.
(i) Magnetic or Open Circuit Characteristic
(OCC)of Shunt Wound DC Generator
The following diagram illustrates the magnetic
characteristic curves for different speeds.
(ii) Internal Characteristic of Shunt Wound DC Generator
(iii) External Characteristic of Shunt Wound DC
Generator
Voltage build-up in a shunt
generator
• For every generator which is used as a self excited generator
there must exist some residual magnetic flux.
• When armature rotates ,conductors cut this small residual flux to
produce emf Er
• This emf drives a small current through field winding
• Thus field current If now produces more flux which is greater
than residual flux
• Hence more emf gets induced
• This further drives more current through field to produce more
flux
• This process is cumulative and continues till rated voltage gets
build up.
Critical Field Resistance for a
Shunt Generator
• THE MAXIMUM FIELD CIRCUIT RESISTANCE FOR
A GIVEN SPEED WITH WHICH THE SHUNT
GENERATOR WOULD JUST EXCITE IS KNOWN AS
ITS CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE
Critical speed(Nc)
• Critical speed is defined as the speed at which the given
shunt field resistance is equal to the critical resistance. It
is the minimum speed below which the dc generator fails
to excite.
Condition for voltage build up
of a shunt generator
• The necessary conditions for voltage build-up in a shunt
generator are:
• (i) There must be some residual magnetism in
generator poles.
• (ii) The connections of the field winding should be such
that the field current strengthens the residual
magnetism.
• (iii) The resistance of the field circuit should be less than
the critical resistance. In other words, the speed of the
generator should be higher than the critical speed.
Parallel Operation of DC Generators-
Need for parallel operation of DC generators

•Increased Power Demand:


•A single generator cannot handle large loads. Connecting multiple generators in parallel allows
sharing of the total load.
•Flexibility and Load Sharing:
•Generators can be added or removed according to load variations. During low demand, some
generators can be turned off to save fuel and maintenance costs.
•Continuity of Supply:
•If one generator fails or needs maintenance, others can continue supplying the load without
interruption.
•Efficiency:
•Operating several generators near their rated capacity is more efficient than running one large
generator at part load.
•Expansion:
•When the load increases beyond the capacity of existing generators, new generators can be
easily added in parallel without replacing the entire system.
•Maintenance Convenience:
•One generator can be taken out of service for repair while others continue to operate, ensuring
no downtime in power supply.
•Voltage Regulation:
•Parallel operation allows better control of terminal voltage under varying load conditions by
adjusting the excitation of individual generators.
Conditions for parallel operation of
shunt generator
• When dc generators are to be paralleled ,the
following conditions muse be correct:
• Same terminal voltage
• Identical polarity and
• Similar speed-voltage characteristics.
Field current I given by

Connection of Parallel DC Generators


• In a power plant, generators are connected to thick copper bars called bus-bars.
These bars act as the positive and negative terminals. To connect generators in
parallel, the positive terminals of the generators are connected to the positive bus-
bar, and the negative terminals to the negative bus-bar.
• To connect a second generator to the system, follow these steps:
• First, run the second generator at its rated speed.
• Then, close switch S4.
• Use the voltmeter (V2), which is across switch S2, to check the voltage.
• Slowly increase the second generator’s voltage using its field rheostat until it
matches the bus-bar voltage.
• When both voltages are equal, close switch S2 to connect the second generator in
parallel.
• At this point, the second generator is connected but not supplying power. This is
called the “floating” state.
• To make the second generator start supplying power, increase its field current.
This raises its voltage above the bus-bar voltage, so it begins delivering current. To
keep the overall bus-bar voltage steady, reduce the field current of the first
generator slightly.
• Field current is given by:
Load Sharing of Parallel Connected DC Generators

• The load gets shifted to another generator by adjusting


induced e.m.f
the load sharing between these generators will be

The value of current output depends upon the values of E1 and E3 which could be managed by field
rheostats to keep the bus-bars voltage constant.
Advantages of Parallel Operation of DC Generators

Cost Effectiveness:
Electricity becomes cheaper when each generator produces power according to its capacity. It’s
easy to manage power supply and demand this way. If less power is needed, some generators
can be turned off, and if more is needed, they can be turned on.
Smooth Power Supply:
If one generator breaks down, power supply doesn't stop. Other working generators can keep
supplying electricity without interruption.
Easy Maintenance:
Generators need regular maintenance. With parallel operation, one generator can be serviced
while others keep running, so there’s no power cut.
Easy to Increase Plant Capacity:
As electricity demand grows, new generators can be added and run alongside existing ones to
produce more power.
Precautions During Parallel Connection

• Each generator has different specifications. When they are


synchronized, their speed matches the overall system speed.
• The total load should be shared equally among all the generators.
• A controller is needed to monitor engine parameters. This can be
done using modern digital controllers available in the market.
• Voltage regulation is very important. If one generator's voltage
drops compared to others, it may end up carrying most of the load.
• Extra care is needed when connecting generators to the bus-bars. If
the connections are made with the wrong polarity, it can cause a
short circuit.
Equalizer rings in Lap Winding

•Equalizer rings are low-resistance copper connections in DC machines.


•Used mainly in lap-wound armatures with many parallel paths.
•They connect points of the armature winding that have the same electrical potential.
•Help balance current in all parallel paths of the armature.
•Prevent circulating currents caused by unequal magnetic flux under poles.
•Reduce sparking at brushes and improve commutation.
•Placed at the back of the armature winding, not connected to the external circuit.
•Not needed in wave-wound machines because they have only two parallel paths.
Dummy coils in wave winding
•Wave-wound DC machines require specific relationships between the number of
armature slots, poles, and commutator segments for proper winding connection.
•If the chosen number of slots does not satisfy this requirement, some coils cannot
be connected in the electrical circuit.
•In such cases, dummy coils are inserted in the unused slots to maintain the
mechanical balance and symmetry of the armature.
•They do not carry current or generate EMF; their purpose is purely mechanical.
•This ensures smooth operation, reduces vibrations, and avoids uneven magnetic
forces in the machine.
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