CHAPTER ONE

computer Organization & Architecture

Outlines
Overview of computer Organization & Architecture
What is Logic Expressions and Boolean Expression
Gates and Circuits
Combinational and sequential Circuits
Adder and Flip-Flops
 OVERVIEW
Computer Organization & Architecture is the study of
internal working, structuring and implementation of a computer
system.

Computer Architecture is a functional description of

requirements and design implementation for the various parts of
computer.

It deals with functional behavior of computer system.

Architecture of computer system can be considered as a catalog

of tools available for any operator using the system.
CONT…
Computer Organization: Computer Organization comes after the decide of

Computer Architecture first.

It is how operational attribute are linked together and contribute to realise the

architectural specification.

Computer Organization deals with structural relationship and will be the way the

system is structured.
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Architecture describes what the Organization describes how it does it.

computer does.
Computer Architecture deals with Computer Organization deals with structural
functional behavior of computer relationship.
system.
 It deals with high-level design issue.  It deals with low-level design issue.

Architecture indicates its hardware. Where, Organization indicates its

For designing a computer, its performance.
architecture is fixed first.
Computer Organization handles the
Where, Organization indicates its
performance. segments of the network in a system.
BOOLEAN AND BOOLEAN VALUE
What is Boolean?

In computing, the term Boolean means a result that can only have one of
two possible values: true or false.

 Boolean logic takes two statements or expressions and applies a logical

operator to generate a Boolean value that can be either true or false.

 To return the result, operators like AND, OR, NOT, etc. are used. So,
Boolean value is either true or false.
 BOOLEAN
EXPRESSION:
A Boolean expression is composed of a combination of the Boolean constants (True or
False), Boolean variables and logical connectives.

 Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean function. Boolean expressions can

compare data of any type as long as both parts of the expression have. It is an expression
that results in a Boolean value, that is, in a value of either true or false.

When you are supplying a Boolean value, you can type either YES, ON, or TRUE for a
true value, and NO, OFF, or FALSE for a false value.

Boolean expressions are the statements that use logical operators, i.e., AND, OR, XOR
and NOT. Thus, if we write X AND Y = True, then it is a Boolean expression.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Boolean algebra can be considered as an algebra that deals with binary variables
and logic operations.

It is also called Binary Algebra or logical Algebra. While in grade 9 and 10
Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with symbols and the arithmetic
operations across these symbols.

Boolean algebraic variables are designated by letters such as A, B, X, and Y. The

basic operations performed are AND, OR, and complement.

The Boolean algebraic functions are mostly expressed with binary variables,
logic operation symbols, parentheses, and equal sign.
GATES AND CIRCUITS.
A gate :- It accepts one or more input signals and produces an output signal. Each
type of gate performs one logical function.

 A circuit :- is a combination of gates designed to accomplish a more complex

logical function.

Logic diagram: a graphical representation of a circuit. Each type of gate is

represented by a specific graphical symbol.

Truth table: defines the function of a gate by listing all possible input combinations
that the gate could encounter, and the corresponding output.
 CONT…
Logic gates are an idealized model of computation or physical
electronic device implementing a Boolean function.
Logic gates perform basic logical functions and are the
fundamental building blocks of digital integrated circuits.
A gate is a device that performs a basic operation on electrical
signals
Gates are combined into circuits to perform more complicated
tasks.
 BASIC LOGICAL
GATES
There are different types of logical gates such as:
AND
OR
NOT
NAND
XOR
NOR
 AND GATES
An AND gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal
of 1 only if all input signals are 1.

The output of the AND gate with inputs A and B, is 1 only if A and B
are 1.

Two or more switches connected in series behave as an AND gate.

It is the physical realization of logical multiplication.

 OR GATES
An OR gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1 if
any of the input signals is 1.

An OR gate is the physical realization of logical addition.

The output of the OR gate with inputs A and B is 1 if A or B is a 1.

 Two or more switches connected in parallel behave as an OR gate.

 NOT GATES
NOT gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal which is
the reverse of the input signal.

 A NOT gate is the physical realization of the complementation or

logical inversion.

 A NOT gate is also known as an inverter because it inverts the input.

 A NOT gate always has a single input.

 NAND GATES
A NAND gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1
if any one of the input is a 0 and will be a 0 when all input signals are 1.
NAND gate is a complemented AND gate.
 The symbol  is used to represent NAND operation in Boolean
expression. Thus A B = (A.B)= A+B
The NAND gate can then be seen to be an AND gate followed by a NOT
gate.
 NOR GATES
A NOR gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1
when all input signals are 0 and it will be 0 if any input represents 1.
 NOR gate is a complemented OR gate.
The NOR gate can then be seen to be an OR gate followed by a NOT
gate.
The symbol  is used to represent NOR operation in Boolean expression.
Thus, A B = (A+B)= A.B
XOR GATE
XOR gate is a digital logic gate that gives a true output when the number of true inputs is
odd.

An XOR gate implements an exclusive or from mathematical logic; that is, a true output
results if one, and only one, of the inputs to the gate is true. If both inputs are false or both
are true, a false output results
REVIEW OF GATE
PROCESSING
PROPERTIES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
LAW OF BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA
[1] x+0=x
[2] x•0=0
[3] x+1=1
[4] x•1=x
[5] x+x=x
[6] x•x=x
[7] x + x’ = 1
[8] x • X’ = 0
[9] (x+y’)y=xy
 DEMORGAN’S
THEOREMS
The complement of two or more AND variables is equivalent
to the OR of the complements of the individual variables.

(AB)’ = A’ + B’

The complement of two or more OR variables is equivalent to

the AND of the complements of the individual variables.
(A + B)’ = A’B’
DeMorgan’s Theorems
(Cont…)
 SIMPLIFICATION
Simplification of Boolean functions Using the theorems of Boolean

Algebra, the algebraic forms of functions can often be simplified.

Which leads to simpler and cheaper implementations.

Boolean algebra finds its most practical use in the simplification of logic

circuits.
 CONT…
If we translate a logic circuit’s function into symbolic form, and apply certain algebraic

rules to the resulting equation to reduce the number of terms and/or arithmetic

operations.

The simplified equation may be translated back into circuit form for a logic circuit

performing the same function with fewer components.

If equivalent function may be achieved with fewer components, the result will be

increased reliability and decreased cost of manufacture.

EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLES 2
 COMBINATIONAL
CIRCUIT
A combinational circuit consists of logic gates whose outputs, at any time,

are determined by combining the values of the inputs.

For n input variables, there are 2n possible binary input combinations.

For each binary combination of the input variables, there is one possible

output.
 COMBINATIONAL
CIRCUITS (CONT.)
Hence, a combinational circuit can be described by:

1. A truth table that lists the output values for each combination of the input variables. or

2. m Boolean functions, one for each output variable.

ADDER
 HALF ADDER
A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is called a half adder.

This circuit needs 2 inputs and 2 outputs.

It accepts two binary digits on its inputs and produce two binary digits as sum bit and a carry bit.

The half adder is an example of a simple, functional digital circuit built from two logic gates.

 The half adder adds to one-bit binary numbers A and B. The output is the sum of the two bits (S) and

the carry (C). That is S=A`.B + A.B`

C= A.B
cont
HALF ADDER LOGIC
DIAGRAM
Half adder truth table
 FULL ADDER
One that performs the addition of 3 bits (2 significant bits and previous carry) is
called a full adder.

The full adder accepts two inputs bits and an input carry and generates a sum output
and an output carry.

Two of the input variables (A and B) represent the addend bits and the third input
variable input represents the carry from the previous lower significant position.

These two outputs are designated by the symbol S (Sum) and C (Carry).
FULL ADDER(CONT..)
Full Adder(Cont..)
FULL ADDER(CONT..)
Sum = (A ⊕ B) ⊕ Cin
Carry= A.B + Cin(A ⊕ B)
Full adder truth table
SEQUENTIAL LOGIC OR CIRCUIT
Sequential logic is a type of logic circuit whose output depends not only on the
present value of its input signals but on the sequence of past inputs, the input
history as well.
This is in contrast to combinational logic, whose output is a function of only
the present input.
Combinational circuits are memory-less. Thus, the output value depends only
on the current input values.
Sequential circuits consist of combinational logic as well as memory elements
(used to store certain circuit states).
Insequential circuit Outputs depend on BOTH current input values and
previous input values (kept in the storage elements).
COMBINATIONAL VS.
SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
 FLIP-FLOPS
Flip-flops are a type of circuit used as data storage elements to store a single bit
(binary digit) of data ,one of its two states represents a "one" and the other
represents a "zero.
The state is when Q=1 and Q'=0, it is in the set state (or 1-state). When Q=0 and
Q'=1, it is in the clear state (or 0-state).
The stored data can be changed by applying varying inputs or signals.

It is used in a number of electronics, including computers and communications

equipment.
It can be constructed from two pair of cross-coupled NAND gates or two NOR
gates.
 TYPES OF FLIP-FLOPS
•Flip-flops can be divided into common types:

 SR (Set-Reset)

D (Data or Delay)

 JK and etc.

•The behavior of a particular type can be described by what is termed the

characteristic equation.
 S-R FLIP FLOP
It has two outputs, Q and Q', and two inputs, set and reset. This type of flip-flop is
referred to as an SR flip-flop
The design of these flip flops also includes two inputs, called the SET [S] and RESET
[R].
CONT…
An important point to note here is that for a NOR gate, Logic ‘1’ is a dominating input and
if any one of its input is Logic ‘1’ (HIGH), then the output is Logic ‘0’ (LOW), irrespective
of the other input.

With this in mind, let us analyze the above circuit.

Case 1: R = 0 and S = 0

In the first case, the inputs of both the NOR gates are Logic ‘0’. As neither of them are
dominating inputs, they have no effect on the output.

 So, the output retains their previous states i.e., there is no change in the output.

This condition is called as Hold Condition or No Change Condition.

CONT…
Case 2: R = 0 and S = 1

In this case, the ‘S’ input is 1, which means the output of the NOR Gate Q will become 0. As a result, both the
inputs of NOR Gate ‘R’ become 0 and hence the output of the NOR Gate value of Q is 1 (HIGH).

As ‘1’ at input S makes the output to switch to one of its stable states and sets it to ‘1’, the S input is known as
SET input.

Case 3: R = 1 and S = 0

In this case, the ‘R’ input is 1, which means the output of the NOR Gate Q will become 0 i.e., Q is 0 (LOW).

 As a result, both the inputs of NOR Gate ‘S’ become 0 and hence the output of the NOR Gate Q is 1 (HIGH).
As ‘1’ at input R makes the output to switch to one of its stable states and resets it to ‘0’, the R input is known as
RESET input.
CONT…
Case 4: R = 1 and S = 1
This input condition is forbidden as it forces outputs of both NOR Gates to
become 0, which is a violation of complementary outputs.
Hence, the input condition R = 1 and S = 1 is simply not used or invalid.
 PLIP-PLOP WITH NAND
GATE
.
CONT…
An important point about NAND gate is that its dominating input is 0 i.e., if any of
its input is Logic ‘0’, the output is Logic ‘1’, irrespective of the other input.
The output is 0, only if all the inputs are 1. With this in mind, let us see the working
of a NAND based RS Flip-Flop.
Case 1: R = 1 and S = 1
When both the S and R inputs are HIGH, the output remains in previous state i.e., it
holds the previous data.
Case 2: R = 1 and S = 0
When R input is HIGH and S input is LOW, the flip flop will be in SET state. As R
is HIGH, the output of NAND gate Q becomes LOW.
This causes both the inputs of NAND gate ‘S’ to become LOW and hence, the
output of NAND gate A i.e., Q becomes HIGH.
CONT…
Case 3: R = 0 and S = 0
When both the R and S inputs are LOW, the flip flop will be in
undefined state.
 Because the low inputs of S and R, violates the rule of flip – flop
that the outputs should complement to each other. So, the flip flop
is in undefined state (or forbidden state).
 D FLIP FLOP
In SR NAND Gate Bistable circuit, the undefined input condition of SET = "0"
and RESET = "0" is forbidden.

It is the drawback of the SR flip flop that both outputs to be 1. This condition
violates the fact that both outputs are complements of each other.

 A flip-flop stores a single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states
represents a "one" and the other represents a "zero".

But in order to prevent this from happening an inverter can be connected

between the “SET” and the “RESET” inputs to produce another type of flip flop
circuit known D flip flop.
CONT…
D Flip Flop ensures that at the same time, both the inputs, i.e., S and R, are never equal

to 1.

The Delay flip-flop is designed using a gated SR flip-flop with an inverter connected

between the inputs allowing for a single input D(Data).

This single data input, which is labeled as "D" used in place of the "Set" input and for

the complementary "Reset" input, the inverter is used. So, here S=D and R=

~D(complement of D).
LOGICAL CIRCUIT OF D-
FLIP FLOPS
JK FLIP FLOP
The JK flip flop is one of the most used flip flops in digital circuits and having two inputs
'J' and ‘K.

The JK flip flop work in the same way as the SR flip flop work. The only difference
between JK flip flop and SR flip flop is that when both inputs of SR flip flop is set to 1, the
circuit produces the invalid states as outputs.

Essentially, this is a modified version of an S-R flip-flop with no “invalid” or “illegal”

output state.

The JK Flip Flop is a gated SR flip-flop having the addition of a clock input circuitry.
CONT…
THE J AND K INPUTS
With SR flip flop the invalid or illegal output condition occurs when both of the
inputs are set to 1 and are prevented by the addition of a clock input circuit with JK.
The old two-input of SR AND gates have been replaced with 3-input AND gates,
and the third input of each gate receives feedback from the Q and not-Q outputs.
It permit the J input to have effect only when the circuit is reset, and permit the K
input to have effect only when the circuit is set.
If the circuit is “set,” the J input is inhibited by the 0 status of not-Q through the
lower AND gate and if the circuit is “reset,” the K input is inhibited by the 0 status
of Q through the upper AND gate.
Since Q and Q' are always different, we can use them to control the input.
CONT…
When both J and K inputs are 1, however, something unique happens. Because of
the selective inhibiting action of those 3-input AND gates.

 A “set” state inhibits input J so that the flip-flop acts as if J=0 while K=1 when in
fact both are 1.

On the next clock pulse, the outputs will switch (“toggle”) from set (Q=1 and not-
Q=0) to reset (Q=0 and not-Q=1).

Conversely, a “reset” state inhibits input K so that the flip-flop acts as if J=1 and
K=0 when in fact both are 1. The next clock pulse toggles the circuit again from
reset to set
TRUTH TABLE
T FLIP-FLOP
In T flip flop, "T" defines the term "Toggle". In SR Flip Flop, we provide only a
single input called "Toggle" or "Trigger" input to avoid an intermediate state
occurrence.

 Now, this flip-flop work as a Toggle switch. The next output state is changed with
the complement of the present state output. This process is known as "Toggling"'.

Toggling means changing the next state output to complement the current state. T
is an abbreviation for Toggle.

A good example to explain this concept is using a light switch.

CONT…
The "T Flip Flop" has only one input, which is constructed by connecting the input
of JK flip flop. This single input is called T.
In simple words, we can construct the "T Flip Flop" by converting a "JK Flip
Flop". Sometimes the "T Flip Flop" is referred to as single input "JK Flip Flop.
The "T Flip Flop" is designed by passing the AND gate's output as input to the
NOR gate of the "SR Flip Flop".
 The inputs of the "AND" gates, the present output state Q, and its complement Q'
are sent back to each AND gate.
 The toggle input is passed to the AND gates as input. These gates are connected to
the Clock (CLK) signal.
 In the "T Flip Flop", a pulse train of narrow triggers are passed as the toggle input,
which changes the flip flop's output state.
DIAGRAM OF THE "T FLIP FLOP
 THE DIGITAL BUFFER
A Digital Buffer is another single input device that does no inversion or performs
any type of logical operation on its input signal as its output exactly matches that of
its input.
In other words, the digital buffer is a "non-inverting" device as it does nothing as
its output state equals its input state.
MULTIPLEXERS (MUX)
It is a device that allows several analog or digital input signals which are to
be selected and transmits the selected input into a single medium or single
output. Multiplexer is also known as Data Selector.
There are two types of multiplexers: analog and digital. If the analog signals
are multiplexed, then it is called as analog multiplexing. If the digital signals
are multiplexed, then it is called digital multiplexing.
A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n select lines that will be used to select input
line to send to the output.
The selection of each input line in a multiplexer is controlled by an
additional set of inputs called control lines and according, it select the
appropriate data input to connect directly to the output.
CONT…
DE-MULTIPLEXERS (DE MUX)
Conversely, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input
signal and selecting one of many data-output-lines.
A demultiplexer functions exactly in the reverse of a multiplexer, that it
accepts only one input and gives many outputs.
In an ALU circuit, the output of ALU can be stored in multiple registers or
storage units with the help of demultiplexer.
 Each output of demultiplexer is connected to multiple register which can be
stored in the registers.
The input will be connected to one of these outputs based on the values of
selection lines.
CONT…
CONT…
COMMUNICATION THROUGH MUX AND DEMUX

Generally multiplexer and demultiplexer are used together since most of the
communication systems are bidirectional.
ENCODERS
An encoder is a device, circuit, software program, algorithm or person that converts
information from one format/code to another, for the purposes of standardization,
speed, confidentiality, security.
CONT…
DECODERS
Decoder is a combinational circuit that has 'n' input lines and maximum of 2n output lines.
One of these outputs will be active High based on the combination of inputs present, when
the decoder is enabled.