UNIT – I Syllabus

• Data Communications: Components – Direction of

Data flow – Networks – Components and Categories
– Types of Connections – Topologies –Protocols and
Standards – ISO / OSI model, Example Networks
such as ATM, Frame Relay, ISDN Physical layer:
Transmission modes, Multiplexing, Transmission
Media, Switching, Circuit Switched Networks,
Datagram Networks, Virtual Circuit Networks.
 Topics
Introduction
What is Data
What is Data Communication
Characteristics of Data communication
Components of Data Communication
Data Representation
Data Flow
What is Network & Network Criteria
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY(Categories of topology)
CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
?????????? WHY ??????.....

“COMPUTER NETWORKS”

FIRSTLY ……

How to computers in internet

talk to each other is “computer
networks”
and shares information's to
communicate,.. That phase relates “data
communication”.
 Introduction
• Data communications and networking may be the fastest growing
technologies in our culture today.
• Research in data communications and networking has resulted in
new technologies.
• One goal is to be able to exchange data such as text, audio, and video
from all points in the world. We want to access the Internet to
download and upload information quickly and accurately and at any
time.
• The development of the personal computer brought about
tremendous changes for business, industry, science, and education. A
similar revolution is occurring in data communications and
networking. Technological advances are making it possible for
communications links to carry more and faster signals. As a result,
services are evolving to allow use of this expanded capacity.
 Data communications
• When we communicate, we are sharing
information. This sharing can be local or remote.
• Between individuals, local communication usually
occurs face to face, while remote communication
takes place over distance. The term
telecommunication, which includes telephony,
telegraphy, and television, means communication at
a distance (tele is Greek for "far").
DEFINATION OF COMPUTER NETWORK
How 2 Computers In Internet Talk To Each Other And Shares The
Information To Communicate .
Here Communication Is Done By The Help Of Nodes.
NODES MAY BE COMPUTER , PRINTER OR MAY BE ANY ORHER DEVICE
CAPABLE OF SENDING RECEIVING DATA GENERATED BY OTHER NODES IN
NETWORK.
Nodes Are Connected By The Communication Links.
NODES CAN BE COMPUTER
SERVER
PRINTER
CEMARA
SWITCHES
BRIDGES
ROUTERS
 Data communications
• Data communications are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable, or may be wireless.
• For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination
of hardware (physical equipment) and software
(programs).
 Wired link ( cable) that
carries the information . MOBILE ONE CONNECTED BY
Depending on this cable WIRELESS TO OTHER
information is exchanged MOBILE.
.

CABLE WIRELES
LINK
COMPUTER NETWROKS EXAMPLE

MAC IP
ADDRESS ADDRESS
END DEVICES AND INTERMEDIARY DEVICES:

END DEVICES: SOURCE / DESTINATION IN COMMUNICATION ARE

CALLED AS END DEVICES.
EXAMPLES: PC, PRINTER, SERVER, TABLET,SMART PHONE.

INTERMEDIARY DEVICES: DEVICES WHICH FORWARDS THE DATA

FROM ONE DEVICE TO OTHER DEVICE.
EXAMPLES: ROUTER, CELL TOWER, MODEM, INTERNET CLOUD.
 Characteristics of Data communication
• The effectiveness of a data communications system
depends on four fundamental characteristics:
Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness, and Jitter.
 Characteristics of Data communication
Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct
destination. Data must be received by the intended device or
user and only by that device or user.
Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data
that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected
are unusable.
Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video and
audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and
without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-
time transmission.
 Characteristics of Data communication
Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival
time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or
video packets. For example, let us assume that video
packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets
arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay,
an uneven quality in the video is the result.
• This is often caused by network congestion, and
sometimes route changes. Essentially, the longer data
packets take to arrive, the more jitter can negatively
impact the video and audio quality.
 Jitter Example

Ex:2
 Components of Data Communication
A data communications system has five components
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission medium
5. Protocol
 Components of Data Communication
A data communications system has five components
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be
communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data
message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the
message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
 Components of Data Communication
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium
is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between
the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two
devices may be connected but not communicating, just
as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese
Components of Data Communication

Fig: Five Components of Data Communication

 Data Representation
• Data Representation refers to the form in which
data is stored, processed, and transmitted.
• Information today comes in different forms such as
text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Data Representation
 Data Representation
 Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern,
a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
 Numbers: decimal numbers converted directly to binary
 Images: In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size
of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example, an image can
be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. (divided into a matrix
of pixels)
 Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or
music (representation of sound by an analog or a digital signal)
 Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or
movie Video can either be produced as a continuous entity e.g., by
a TV or camera
 Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be
I. Simplex
II. Half-Duplex
III. Full-Duplex.
Data Flow
 Data Flow(Contd.)
Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit;
the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are
examples of simplex devices. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
 Data Flow(Contd.)
Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the
other can only receive, and vice versa.
• Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half- duplex
systems. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is
no need for communication in both directions at the same
time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
each direction.
 Data Flow(Contd.)
Full-duplex: In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations
can transmit and receive simultaneously.
• One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is
used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between
the two directions.
Full-duplex :Ex
 Data Flow (fig)

Fig: Data flow(Simplex ,Half-duplex, Full-duplex)

 Network
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a computer,
printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.
 A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes,
network devices, peripherals, or other devices connected to allow
data sharing. An example of a network is the Internet, which
connects millions of people all over the world
 A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in
order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange
files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites
 Advantages of a network
There are more advantages to a network than disadvantages. In
fact, many companies today wouldn't exist without accessing
some form of network.
I. Share data and information - One of the biggest advantages
of a network is sharing data and information between each
of the devices on it. In addition, networks allow access
to databases and help with collaboration on more complex
work.
II. Communication - A network gives all users the ability to
quickly communicate with each other using chat, instant
messaging, e-mail, and videoconferencing.
 Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of
criteria. The most important of these are
Performance
Reliability
security
 Network Criteria
Performance:
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time
and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of
a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
 Network Criteria
Reliability:
• In addition to accuracy of delivery ,Network
reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from a failure.
Network Reliability
 Network Criteria
Security: Network security issues include protecting data
from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage
and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Network Security
 PHYSICAL STRUCTURES
TYPES OF CONNECTIONS :
• A network is two or more devices connected
through links.
• A link is a communications pathway that transfers
data from one device to another.
• There are two possible types of connections: point-
to-point and multipoint.
 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
Point-to-Point :
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link
between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual length
of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other
options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible. When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-
point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
Multipoint :
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is
one in which more than two specific devices share a
single link.
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the
channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it
is a spatially shared connection. If users must
take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS

Fig: TYPES OF CONNECTIONS :point –to-point and multipoint

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY(Categories of topology)
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
Network Topology :
• Arrangement of nodes of a computer network.
• Topology =Layout
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY(Categories of topology)
• The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is
laid out physically. One or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
• There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology is multipoint. One cable acts as a backbone to link
all the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable
by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between
the device and the main cable.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as
it travels farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the
number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those
taps.
Bus Topology
 Bus Topology: Advantages:
Advantages:
I. Easy to connect or remove devices in a network
without affecting any other device.
II. In case of any computer or device failure, there will be
no effect on other devices or network.
III. Cable cost is less as compared to other network
topology i.e. mesh and star.
IV. It is easy to understand topology.
V. Easy to expand by joining two cables together
VI. No hubs or switches are required.
 Bus Topology: Disadvantages
I. In the case of any device failure, it is difficult to find
faults in a network.
II. If the backbone cable damages the entire
system/network will fail.
III. Proper termination is required to prevent bouncing of
signals. The use of terminators is a must.
IV. It is slower because one computer transmits at a
time.
V. It provides very low security because all the
computers receive the sent signal from the source.
VI. The length of cable is limited
Bus Topology
 Ring topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-
to-point connection with only the two devices on
either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in
one direction, from device to device, until it reaches
its destination.
Ring topology
Ring topology
 Ring topology
Advantages
• All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet
collisions.
• Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
• Additional workstations can be added without impacting
performance of the network.
Disadvantages
• All data being transferred over the network must pass through each
workstation on the network, which can make it slower than a star
topology.
• The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
• The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is
more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
 Star Topology
Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-
point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The
devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh
topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to
send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device .
 Star Topology: Advantages
Advantages:
• 1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star,
each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to
any number of others.
• 2. Easy to install and reconfigure.
• 3. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and
deletions involve only one connection: between that device and
the hub.
• 4. Other advantage include robustness. If one link fails, only that
link is affected. All other links remain active. This factor also lends
itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the
hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass
defective links.
 Star Topology: Disadvantages
Disadvantages:
• One big disadvantage of a star topology is the
dependency of the whole topology on one single point,
the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is
dead. Although a star requires far less cable than a
mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub.
• For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star
than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
 Mesh topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated
point-to point link to every other device. The term
dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully
connected mesh network with n nodes, we first
consider that each node must be connected to
every other node.
Mesh topology
 Mesh topology-Advantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry
its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can
occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
3. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message
travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees
it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
 Mesh topology-Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount
of cabling because every device must be connected
to every other device.
2. Installation and reconnection are difficult.
3. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than
the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can
accommodate.
4. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O
ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.
If the no.of Nodes are Two
If the no.of Nodes are Three
If there are N nodes
 CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS /
Classification of Computer Networks
 CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
There are 3 categories of networks depend on its size:
1. Local Area Networks (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 Local Area Networks(LAN)
• A Local Area Network (LAN) provides short-distance transmission of data
over small geographic areas that may comprise a single office, building,
or campus.
• Size: LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
• Speed: Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps)
range but now speeds are increased to 100 or 1000 Mbps.
• LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal
computers or workstations.
• The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software
(e.g., an application program), or data.
• A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned.
• LAN will use only one type of transmission medium.
• The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
Local Area Networks(LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Networks
• A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network
with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It
normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity to the Internet, and have endpoints
spread over a city or part of city.
• Example of a MAN is the part of the telephone
company network that can provide a high speed
DSL line to the customer.
Metropolitan Area Networks
 Wide Area Network
• A Wide Area Network (WAN) provides long-distance
transmission of data, image, audio, and video information
over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world.
• The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually
comprise a router (internetworking connecting device) that
connects to another LAN or WAN.
• The point-to-point WAN is often used to provide Internet
access. A line leased from a telephone or Cable TV provider
that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet
service provider (lSP).
WAN(Communication at a large distance)
Wide Area Network
PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
two widely used terms: protocols and standards.
Protocol: Set of rules.
Standards: which are agreed-upon rules.
 PROTOCOLS
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol
defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated. For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a
protocol.
The key elements of a protocol are:
• Syntax
• Semantics
• Timing.
Syntax
• The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the
address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver,
and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
 PROTOCOLS
Semantics
• The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of
bits. How are a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what
action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
Timing
• The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data
should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
• For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the
receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission
will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
 STANDARDS
• STANDARDS
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in international communications.
• Standards Organizations
• Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation
committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies.
• Standards Creation Committees
• ISO (International Organization for Standardization )
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
• ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
• ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standards Sector)
• EIA (Electronic Industries Association)
 Types of Standards
• Types of Standards :
Standards are of two types :
• De Facto Standard.
• De Jure Standard.
 De Jure Standard
De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word
“De Jure” is “By Law” or “By
Regulations” .
Thus , these are the standards that have been approved
by officially recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc.
 These are the standard which are important to follow
if
it is required or needed.
For example : All the data communication
 De Facto Standard
• De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De
Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By Convention”.
These are the standard s that have not been approved
by any Organization , but have been adopted
as Standards because of it’s widespread use. Also ,
sometimes these standards are often established by
Manufacturers.
• For example : Apple and Google are two
companies which established their own rules on their
products which are different . Also they use some same
standard rules for manufacturing for their products.
 NETWORK MODELS
• There are two types of network models are used:
– ISO/OSI Model.
– TCP/IP protocol model
OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)
 ISO/OSI Model
• ISO is the Organization. OSI is the Model. ISO was established in
1947.
• The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection model.
• An Open System is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model
that describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
 OSI Model (Cont…)
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and
manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding
and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
• The OSI model allows communication between all types of
computer systems
 The Seven Layers in OSI Model are:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
OSI Layers
 OSI Layers (Sender side)
Application Layer I am blessed

Presentation Layer dkb451$2*&jdakm

Session Layer dkb451$2*&jdakm

Transport Layer TL INFO - dkb451$2*&jdakm

Network Layer NL INFO - TL INFO -dkb451$2*&jdakm

Data link Layer DL INFO-NL INFO -TL INFO -dkb451$2*&jdakm

Physical Layer 10011101011100010110100111

 OSI Layers (Receiver side)
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Session Layer dkb451$2*&jdakm

Transport Layer TL INFO - dkb451$2*&jdakm

Network Layer NL INFO - TL INFO -dkb451$2*&jdakm

Data link Layer DL INFO-NL INFO -TL INFO -dkb451$2*&jdakm

Physical Layer 10011101011100010110100111

 OSI Layers (PDNTSPA)
Application Layer away

Presentation Layer principal

Session Layer
Success
Transport Layer through

Network Layer
not

Data link Layer do

Physical Layer Please

 Physical Layer
• The Physical Layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel(Transmission medium).
Physical Layer is responsible for:
• The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the
individual bits from one node to another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model
• It defines the type of transmission medium.
• It also defines the data transmission rate, synchronization of data
between sender and receiver.
• At the physical layer, one might find “physical” resources such as
network hubs, cabling, repeaters, network adapters or modems.
 Services offered by the Physical Layer
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium:
• The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface
between the devices and the transmission medium
•It also defines the type of transmission
medium Representation of bits:
• The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os
or 1s). To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding
(how Os and I s are changed to signals).
Data rate:
• The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also
defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer
defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
 Services offered by the Physical Layer
Synchronization of bits:
•The sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized Line configuration:
•The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. Physical topology:
• The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network.
• Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is
connected to every other device), a star topology (devices are connected
through a central device), a ring topology (each device is connected to the
next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device is on a common link), or a
hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
Transmission mode:
• The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
 Physical Layer

Fig: The physical layer with respect to the transmission medium and Data link layer
Physical Layer
 The Data Link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one
node to the next node.
• The main task of the Data link layer is Error Free Transmission. At
the sender the data link layer break up the input data into data
frames and transmits the frames sequentially.
• Frame is typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes.
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
• Framing - The data link layer divides the stream of bits received
from the network layer into manageable data units called frames
• Physical addressing - If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the
frame to define the sender and receiver of the frame.
 Responsibilities of the data link layer (Cont..)
Flow control :
 the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.
Error control :
 The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also
uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
 Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end
of the frame.
Access control :
 When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control
over the link at any given time.
 The Data Link Layer

Fig: Relationship of the data link layer to the Network layer and Physical layer
The Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host through
single or multiple networks.
• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks
the location of devices on the network.
• Network layer defines the data path, the packets should
follow to reach the destination. Routers work on this layer
and provides mechanism to route data to its destination.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as
Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and
Ipv6.
 Network Layer
Responsibilities of the Network layer include the following:
Logical addressing:
• The physical addressing is implemented by Data-link layer, whereas logical
addressing is implemented by network layer.
• Data-link layer handles the addressing problem locally, but if packets passes
the network boundary there is a need for logical addressing system to help
distinguish source and destination systems.
• The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer
that includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
Routing:
• When independent networks or links are connected to create inter-
networks (network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices
(called routers or switches) route the packets to their final destination.
 Network Layer

Fig: relationship of the network layer to the data link and transport layers.
 Transport Layer
• The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries from the source to
the destination.
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another. A process is an application program running on a host.
• This Layer is the first one which breaks the information data, supplied by
Application layer in to smaller units called segments. It numbers every
byte in the segment and maintains their accounting.
• The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message
arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control
at the source-to-destination level.
• The transport layer is a 4th layer in the OSI layers.
• A computer network provides more than one protocol to the network
applications. For example, TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols
that provide a different set of services to the network layer.
 Transport Layer
Responsibilities of the Transport Layer Include:
Port addressing (or) Service point addressing:
• Source-to-Destination delivery means delivery not only from
one computer to the next but also from a specific process
(running program) on one computer to a specific process
(running program) on the other.
• The transport layer header must therefore include a type of
address called a service-point address (or port address).
• The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer;
the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct
process on that computer.
 Transport Layer
Segmentation and Reassembly
• A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number.
• These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination and the sequence numbers are
used for identifying and replace packets that were lost during transmission.
Connection control
• The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
• A Connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent
packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine.
• A Connection-Oriented transport layer makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the
packets.
 Transport Layer
Flow control :
• Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
• Flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a
single link.
Error control:
• Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control.
• Error control at this layer is performed Process-to-Process rather than
across a single link.
• The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at
the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication).
• Error control achieved through Retransmission(transmitting data again).
 Transport Layer

Fig : the relationship of the transport layer to the network and session layers.
 Session Layer
• The session layer allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them. The session layer is the network dialog
controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems.
 Session Layer
Responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
• Dialog Control :The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half-
duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
• Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data. Check-Pointing long transmissions
to allow them to pick up from where they left off in the event of a crash and
subsequent recovery
• For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is
received and acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash happens
during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent
after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be
resent.
Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.
• The presentation layer is responsible for Translation,
Compression, and Encryption.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax
layer.
• Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model.
Presentation Layer
 Presentation Layer
Translation
• The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers etc. The information must be
changed before transmitting
• The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format.
• The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into
its receiver-dependent format.
Encryption
• Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another
form and sends the resulting message out over the network.
• Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its
original form. Encryption and Decryption is done for privacy of the sensitive
information.
 Presentation Layer
Compression
• Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
• Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission
of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
 Application Layer
• The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user (human or
program).
• The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by
users. The application layer enables the user to access the network.
Services provided by the application layer include the following:
• Network virtual terminal: is a software version of a physical terminal, and it allows
a user to log on to a remote host.
• File transfer, access, and management : This application allows a user to access files
in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote
computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.
• Mail services :This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
• Directory services : application provides distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and services.
Application Layer
Summary of the OSI Layers:
Computer Netwroks examples are:
1.ATM
2.FRAME RELAY
3.ISDN
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) in Computer Network
Working:
Frame relay switches set up virtual circuits to connect multiple LANs
to build a WAN. Frame relay transfers data between LANs across WAN
by dividing the data in packets known as frames and transmitting
these packets across the network. It supports communication with
multiple LANs over the shared physical links or private lines.
Frame relay network is established between Local Area Networks
(LANs) border devices such as routers and service provider network
that connects all the LAN networks. Each LAN has an access link that
connects routers of LAN to the service provider network terminated
by the frame relay switch. The access link is the private physical link
used for communication with other LAN networks over WAN. The
frame relay switch is responsible for terminating the access link and
providing frame relay services.
For data transmission, LAN's router (or other border device
linked with access link) sends the data packets over the access
link. The packet sent by LAN is examined by a frame relay
switch to get the Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI) which
indicates the destination of the packet. Frame relay switch
already has the information about addresses of the LANs
connected to the network hence it identifies the destination LAN
by looking at DLCI of the data packet. DLCI basically identifies
the virtual circuit (i.e. logical path between nodes that doesn't
really exist) between source and destination network. It
configures and transmits the packet to frame relay switch of
destination LAN which in turn transfers the data packet to
destination LAN by sending it over its respective access link.
Hence, in this way, a LAN is connected with multiple other LANs
by sharing a single physical link for data transmission.
Frame Relay
Frame Relay is a packet-switching network protocol that is
designed to work at the data link layer of the network.
It is used to connect Local Area Networks (LANs) and transmit
data across Wide Area Networks (WANs).
It is a better alternative to a point-to-point network for
connecting multiple nodes that require separate dedicated
links to be established between each pair of nodes.
It allows transmission of different size packets and dynamic
bandwidth allocation. Also, it provides a congestion control
mechanism to reduce the network overheads due to
congestion.
It does not have an error control and flow management
mechanism.
Working:
Frame relay switches set up virtual circuits to connect multiple
LANs to build a WAN. Frame relay transfers data between LANs
across WAN by dividing the data in packets known as frames and
transmitting these packets across the network. It supports
communication with multiple LANs over the shared physical links
or private lines.
Frame relay network is established between Local Area Networks
(LANs) border devices such as routers and service provider
network that connects all the LAN networks. Each LAN has an
access link that connects routers of LAN to the service provider
network terminated by the frame relay switch. The access link is
the private physical link used for communication with other LAN
networks over WAN. The frame relay switch is responsible for
terminating the access link and providing frame relay services.
For data transmission, LAN's router (or other border device linked
with access link) sends the data packets over the access link.
The packet sent by LAN is examined by a frame relay switch to get
the Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI) which indicates the
destination of the packet.
Frame relay switch already has the information about addresses of
the LANs connected to the network hence it identifies the destination
LAN by looking at DLCI of the data packet.
DLCI basically identifies the virtual circuit (i.e. logical path between
nodes that doesn't really exist) between source and destination
network.
It configures and transmits the packet to frame relay switch of
destination LAN which in turn transfers the data packet to destination
LAN by sending it over its respective access link.
Hence, in this way, a LAN is connected with multiple other LANs by
sharing a single physical link for data transmission.
ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network

(ISDN) is a set of communication protocols that enable the

simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and
other network services over traditional Public Switched
Telephone Network(PSTN) connections.

ISDN aims to enable end-to-end digital connectivity to serve a

diverse set of services.
What is ISDN?
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also
provides access to packet-switched networks that allow digital
transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially better
voice or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides
a packet-switched connection for data in increments of 64 kilobit/s.
It provided a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream
and downstream directions. A greater data rate was achieved
through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of three or
four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
History of ISDN
Before the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the
telephone system was seen as a way to transmit voice, with
some special services available for data. The main feature of
ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on the same lines,
which were not available in the classic telephone system. In the
context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network in
data-link and physical layers but commonly ISDN is often
limited to usage to Q.931 and related protocols. These
protocols introduced in 1986 are a set of signaling protocols
establishing and breaking circuit-switched connections and for
advanced calling features for the user. ISDN provides
simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between
individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group video
conferencing systems.
Types of ISDN Interfaces
1)Basic Rate Interface (BRI) : There are two data-bearing
channels ('B' channels) and one signaling channel ('D' channel) in
BRI to initiate connections. The B channels operate at a maximum
of 64 Kbps while the D channel operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps.
The two channels are independent of each other. For example, one
channel is used as a TCP/IP connection to a location while the other
channel is used to send a fax to a remote location. In iSeries ISDN
supports a basic rate interface (BRl). The basic rate interface (BRl)
specifies a digital pipe consisting of two B channels of 64 Kbps each
and one D channel of 16 Kbps. This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In
addition, the BRl service itself requires an operating overhead of 48
Kbps. Therefore a digital pipe of 192 Kbps is required.
2) Primary Rate Interface (PRI): Primary Rate Interface
service consists of a D channel and either 23 or 30 B
channels depending on the country you are in. PRI is not
supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe with 23 B channels
and one 64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary
Rate Interface (PRI). Twenty-three B channels of 64 Kbps
each and one D channel of 64 Kbps equals 1.536 Mbps. The
PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI
requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps.
3) Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN): Narrowband ISDN
has been designed to operate over the current
communications infrastructure, which is heavily
dependent on the copper cable however B-ISDN
relies mainly on the evolution of fiber optics.
According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as 'a
service requiring transmission channels capable of
supporting rates greater than the primary rate.
ISDN Services
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These
services fall into 3 categories- bearer services, teleservices, and
supplementary services.
1) Bearer Services: Transfer of information (voice, data, and
video) between users without the network manipulating the
content of that information is provided by the bearer network.
There is no need for the network to process the information and
therefore does not change the content. Bearer services belong to
the first three layers of the OSI model. They are well defined in
the ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched,
packet-switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.
2)Teleservices: In this, the network may change or process the
contents of the data. These services correspond to layers 4-7 of
the OSI model. Teleservices rely on the facilities of the bearer
services and are designed to accommodate complex user needs.
The user need not be aware of the details of the process.
Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex,
and teleconferencing. Though the ISDN defines these services by
name yet they have not yet become standards.
3) Supplementary Service: Additional functionality to the
bearer services and teleservices are provided by supplementary
services. Reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling
are examples of supplementary services which are all familiar
with today's telephone company services.
Working of ISDN
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly
CCITT). The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
coordinates standards for telecommunications on behalf of the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is based in
Geneva, Switzerland. The various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T
recommendation are:
• To support switched and non-switched applications
• To support voice and non-voice applications
• Reliance on 64-kbps connections
• Intelligence in the network
• Layered protocol architecture
• Variety of configurations
Advantages of ISDN
• ISDN channels have a reliable connection.
• ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple
digital channels.
• It has faster data transfer rate.
• Efficient use of bandwidth
• Improved call quality
• It provides Greater flexibility
• Integrated services
Disadvantages of ISDN
• ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone
system.
• It requires specialized digital devices.
• It is less flexible.
• Limited coverage
• High installation and maintenance costs
• Limited features
Conclusion:
The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) improved
telecommunications by allowing for simultaneous digital
transmission of voice, video, and data via existing PSTN
lines. ISDN offers significant advantages for a variety of
applications by allowing for faster data transfer rates, better
call quality, and additional digital channels. However,
because to its high costs, the requirement for specialized
equipment, and limited flexibility, its use has decreased as
more modern broadband technologies have emerged.
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• The TCP model stands for Transmission Control
Protocol, whereas IP stands for Internet Protocol.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the
OSI model.
This model consists of 4 layers(5 layers):
• Host-To-Network Layer
• Internet Layer
• Transport Layer
• Application Layer
 Layers comparison in TCP/IP and OSI:
• Host-to-Network layer is equivalent to the combination of
the Physical and Data link
• layers.
• The Internet Layer is equivalent to the Network layer.
• The Transport layer is similar in both OSI and TCP/IP, except
that in TCP/IP it will take care of part of the duties of the
session layer.
•
The Application Layer is roughly doing the job of the Session,
Presentation, and
• Application layers.
 Functionality in TCP/IP and OSI:
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, each of which provides a specific
functionality; however, the modules are not necessarily
interdependent.
• OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of
its layers, the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain
relatively independent protocols that can be mixed and
matched depending on the needs of the system.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper-level
protocol is supported by one or more lower-level
protocols.
• Host-to- Network Layer
• At the Host-to-Network layer is a combination of
Physical Layer and Data-link layer in OSI model.
• It is an interface between hosts and transmission
links.
• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
• A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-
area network or a wide-area network.
 Internet Layer (or) Network Layer
• In this layer TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol (IP). The
Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the
TCP/IP protocols.
• An internet layer is also known as the network layer
• It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery
service.
• The term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or
tracking.
• The transmission is unreliable (i.e.) there is no guarantee for the data.
• IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported
separately.
• Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence
or be duplicated.
• IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering
datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
 IP uses four supporting protocols
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
• ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol)
• IGMP(Internet Group Message Protocol)
 Transport Layer
• Transport layer in TCP/IP has three protocols:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
• SCTP(Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
 Transmission Control Protocol
• TCP provides full transport-layer services to applications. TCP
is a reliable stream transport protocol.
• The term stream means connection-oriented: A connection
must be established between both ends of a transmission before
either can transmit data.
• At the sending side for each transmission TCP divides a stream of
data into smaller units called Segments. Each segment includes a
sequence number for reordering at the destination side. Segments
are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams.
• For every segment there is a corresponding acknowledgement to
be sent from the destination to the source.
• At the receiving side TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and
reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
• User Datagram Protocol
• UDP is unreliable, connectionless protocols for applications that do not
want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their own.
• It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum
error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
• It is also widely used for client-server-type request-reply queries and
applications in which prompt delivery is more important than accurate
delivery such as transmitting speech or video.
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol
• The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for
newer applications such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport layer
protocol that combines the best features of UDP and TCP.
 Application Layer
• On top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the
higher-level protocols such as:
• Telnet protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual
terminal connection.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) used for file transfer.
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) used for mail services.
• Domain Name System (DNS) used for mapping host names onto their
network addresses.
• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) used for fetching pages on the World
Wide Web (WWW).
• Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) used for delivering real-time media
such as voice or movies.
PHYSICAL LAYER:
1)TRANSMISSION
2)MODES MULTIPLEXING
 TRANSMISSION MODES
.
 Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission is a mode of serial
transmission for modems and other
telecommunication devices in which the data is
transmitted as a continuous stream of bytes
separated by start and stop bits.
Asynchronous Transmission
 isochronous transmission
• In real-time audio and video, in which uneven
delays between frames are not acceptable,
synchronous transmission fails.
• The isochronous transmission guarantees that the
data arrive at a fixed rate.
MULTIPLEXING
 MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one
link.
The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a
multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single stream
(many-to-one). At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a
demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream back into
its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them
to their corresponding lines.
Figure : Dividing a link into channels
 Basic Multiplexing Techniques
There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
1)Frequency-division multiplexing(FDM),
2)Wavelength-division multiplexing(WDM),
3)Time-division multiplexing(TDM).
The first two are techniques designed for analog
signals, the third, for digital signals.
Figure Categories of multiplexing
 Frequency-Division Multiplexing:
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog
technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a
link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths
of the signals to be transmitted.
In FDM, signals generated by each sending device
modulate different carrier frequencies. These
modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that can be transported by the link.
Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient
bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal.
 Figure :FDM

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
 Multiplexing Process
 Each source generates a signal of a similar
frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these
similar signals modulates different carrier
frequencies(f1,f2 and f3).
 The resulting modulated signals are then combined
into a single composite signal that is sent out over a
media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it.
Multiplexing Process (FDM)
 Demultiplexing Process (FDM)
• The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to
decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals.
• The individual signals are then passed to a
demodulator that separates them from their
carriers and passes them to the output lines.
Demultiplexing Process:
Example 1
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4
KHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 KHz, from 20 to 32 KHz. Show
the configuration using the frequency domain without the
use of guard bands.
Example 1 Solution
(WDM )Wave Division Multiplexing

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine
optical signals.
Time-Division Multiplexing :
 Consider a system having four input streams, A, B, C and D.
 Each of the data streams is divided into units which are allocated
time slots in the round – robin manner.
 Hence, the time slot 1 is allotted to A, slot 2 is allotted to B, slot 3
is allotted to C, slot 4 is allotted to D, slot 5 is allocated to A
again, and this goes on till the data in all the streams are
transmitted.
 Time-Division Multiplexing - 2 types
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
In synchronous TDM

• In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input

connection is divided into units, where each input
occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit,
one character, or one block of data. Each input unit
becomes one output unit and occupies one output
time slot.
 Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
 Insynchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot
in the output frame.
 This can be inefficient if some input lines have no data to send. In
statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically allocated to
improve bandwidth efficiency.
 Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to send is it given a
slot in the output frame. In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots
in each frame is less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer
checks each input line in roundrobin fashion; it allocates a slot for an
input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and
checks the next line.
 Statistical TDM .
• An asynchronous TDM is also known as
Statistical TDM.
• An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time
slots are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM.
Time slots are allocated to only those devices which
have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that
Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only
the data from active workstations.
• An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically
allocates the time slots to the devices.
Transmission Media
 Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission
media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two
conductors parallel to each other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair
cable.
• The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of
copper, and the outer conductor is made up of copper
mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive
cover that separates the inner conductor from the
outer conductor.
 Coaxial cable
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
• The data can be transmitted at high speed.
• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair
cable.
• It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair
cable.
• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the
 Fiber-Optic Cable
• A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of light.
• Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
• Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in
plastic that are used to send the data by pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
• Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper
wires.
Fiber-Optic Cable
Propagation Modes of Fiber Optic Cable
Propagation Modes of Fiber Optic Cable
In multimode step-index fibre, the density of the
core remains constant from the centre to the
edges. A beam of light moves through this
constant density in a straight line until it reaches
the interface of the core and the cladding. The
term step-index refers to the suddenness of this
change, which contributes to the distortion of
the signal as it passes through the fibre.
In multimode graded-index fibre. A graded-index
fibre, is one with varying densities. Density is
highest at the centre of the core and decreases
gradually to its lowest at the edge.

Single mode uses step-index fibre and a highly

focused source of light that limits beams to a
small range of angles, all close to the horizontal
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted pair or
coaxial).
Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable:
• Fibre optic has several advantages over metallic cable:
• Higher bandwidth
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
• Light weight
Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable:
• There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fibre:
• Installation and maintenance
• Unidirectional light propagation
• High Cost
 Unguided medium: wireless
 Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
 Signals are normally broadcast through free space
and thus are available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them.
 No physical medium is required for the transmission
of electromagnetic signals.
Figure 7.19 Wireless transmission waves

7.207
Figure 7.17 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

7.208
Figure 7.18 Propagation methods

7.209
Table : Bands

7.210
Note
Radio waves are used for multicast communications,
such as radio and television, and paging systems. They
can penetrate through walls.
Highly regulated. Use omni directional antennas

Omni directional :receiving signals from

or transmitting in all directions.
7.211
Figure 7.20 Omnidirectional antenna

7.212
Note

Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as

cellular telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.
Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.
Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight
communications.

7.213
Figure 7.21 Unidirectional antennas

7.214
 Note

Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a

closed area using line-of-sight propagation.

7.215
 Infrared waves
 Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They
cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference
between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
 SWITCHING
Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one
device to another in a network, or from one network to another,
using specific devices called switches.
A computer user experiences switching all the time for example,
accessing the Internet from your computer device, whenever a user
requests a webpage to open, the request is processed through
switching of data packets only.
Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model.
This means that after the generation of data packets in the
Network layer, switching is the immediate next process in data
communication.
Introduction to Switch
• A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects and
helps multiple devices share a network without their data
interfering with each other.
• A switch works like a traffic cop at a busy intersection. When a
data packet arrives, the switch decides where it needs to go and
sends it through the right port.
• Some data packets come from devices directly connected to the
switch, like computers or VoIP phones. Other packets come from
devices connected through hubs or routers.
• The switch knows which devices are connected to it and can send
data directly between them. If the data needs to go to another
network, the switch sends it to a router, which forwards it to the
correct destination.
Network Switching

A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates

the process of switching i.e., incoming data packets and transferring
them to their destination. A switch works at the Data Link layer of
the OSI Model.

A switch primarily handles the incoming data packets from a source

computer or network and decides the appropriate port through which
the data packets will reach their target computer or network.

A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with
the help of its destination MAC(Media Access Control) Address. A
switch does this effectively by maintaining a switching table, (also
known as forwarding table).

A network switch is more efficient than a network Hub or repeater

because it maintains a switching table, which simplifies its task and
The switching process involves the following steps:
• Frame Reception: The switch receives a data frame or packet from a
computer connected to its ports.
• MAC Address Extraction: The switch reads the header of the data frame
and collects the destination MAC Address from it.
• MAC Address Table Lookup: Once the switch has retrieved the MAC
Address, it performs a lookup in its Switching table to find a port that leads
to the MAC Address of the data frame.
• Forwarding Decision and Switching Table Update: If the switch
matches the destination MAC Address of the frame to the MAC address in its
switching table, it forwards the data frame to the respective port. However, if
the destination MAC Address does not exist in its forwarding table, it follows
the flooding process, in which it sends the data frame to all its ports except
the one it came from and records all the MAC Addresses to which the frame
was delivered. This way, the switch finds the new MAC Address and updates
its forwarding table.
• Frame Transition: Once the destination port is found, the switch sends the
Types of Switching

There are three types of switching methods:

• Message Switching
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Datagram Packet Switching
• Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
Message Switching: This is an older switching technique that has
become obsolete. In message switching technique, the entire data
block/message is forwarded across the entire network thus, making it
highly inefficient
Circuit Switching:
In this type of switching, a connection is established between the source
and destination beforehand. This connection receives the complete
bandwidth of the network until the data is transferred completely.
This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve
sending data to the entire network, instead of its destination only.
Datagram Packet Switching:

In Datagram Packet switching, each data frame is taken as an

individual entity and thus, they are processed separately.
Here, no connection is established before data transmission occurs.
Although this approach provides flexibility in data transfer, it may
cause a loss of data frames or late delivery of the data frames.
Virtual-Circuit Packet
Switching:
In Virtual-Circuit Packet switching, a logical connection between
the source and destination is made before transmitting any data.

These logical connections are called virtual circuits. Each data

frame follows these logical paths and provides a reliable way of
transmitting data with less chance of data loss.