Chapter 2

Digestion and absorption

Chapter objective
• Define digestive system terms
• Mention GITs in the digestive system
• Explain common digestive system problems
Digestive system
• digestive system is a human body system in which process of the ingestion, digestion and
absorption of food in the gastro intestinal track/alimentary canal occurs.
• digestive system of the human body comprises a group of organs working together to
convert food into energy for the body.

• Consists of GI track, accessory organs, enzymes and mesentery

• GI track-mouth, esophagus, stomach, s.intestine, l.intestine
• Accessory organs- liver, pancreas, gallbladder
• Enzymes –
• Mesentary – the structure that hold our gut firm ( a fold of membrane that attaches the intestine to
the wall around the stomach area and holds it in place)
• functions: Digestion, Absorption, Elimination
• GI starts at the mouth and ends at the anus
• The system that help us utilize food
Definition of terms
• Digestion – process of breaking down foods to release nutrients
• Goal is to break down foods to nutrients to absorbable units
 2 types of digestions:
1. Mechanical -it involves physical movement to make foods smaller or
the process through which the mouth breaks large pieces of food down
into smaller ones.
2. Chemical (enzymatic), it uses enzymes to break down food
• Absorption – movement of nutrients out of GI tract into blood or lymph
• Water soluble nutrients
• Fat soluble nutrients
• Excretion – elimination of undigested foods (feces)
Definition cont.…
• Sphincters – regulate the flow of food particles
1. Upper esophageal sphincter (UES)- it is located at the end of the pharynx,
where it guards the opening of the esophagus.
 it prevents the induction of air in the esophagus while breathing
 prevents food from getting inside the respiratory system
2. lower esophageal sphincter (LES), also called cardiac sphincter,
 is located at the end of the esophagus, where it joins the stomach.
 It functions to permit food to pass from the esophagus to the stomach and
 to enable air to pass from the stomach while burping.
 It also prevents the backward flow of gastric acid into the esophagus
Definition cont…
3. Pyloric sphincter- allows passage from stomach to small
intestine and to prevents backflow from small intestine
• Chewing – biting of food in the mouth to make it easier to swallow
• Peristalsis – the wavelike, rhythmic muscular contractions of the GI
tract that move chyme down its tract
• the wavelike movement of chyme through the small intestine
• Segmentation – periodic squeezing and partitioning of the SI which
mixes the chyme and promotes close contact with digestive juices and
absorbing cells
The Human GI Tract Anatomy
Peristalsis and segmentation
Sphincters
GI parts and functions
•The main functions of the GI system include ingestion and digestion of food,
nutrient absorption, secretion of water and enzymes, and excretion of waste
products
• Mouth  esophagus  stomach  small intestine  large intestine 
annus/rectum
• Accessory organs
o Pancreas- Makes digestive juice to break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
that the body secretes into the small intestine.
o Liver-Produces bile, a digestive juice that breaks down fats and certain vitamins.
o Gallbladder-Stores bile and secretes it into the small intestine when required.
 Mouth
• Structure: teeth, tongue, salivary glands
• Secretions:
• Saliva
• Amylase – breaks down starches into small sugar
molecules (only about 5%)
• Lingual Lipase – breaks down fats, but only in a few
amount
• Digestion
• Mechanical- in the oral cavity consists of
grinding of food into smaller pieces by the
teeth, a process called mastication

• Enzymatic/Chemical -It consists of salivary

amylase and lingual lipase, both contained in
the saliva
• Swallow  tongue pushes food  pharynx  ……
• Epiglottis – guards entrance to the trachea
 Esophagus

• Structure – ≈ 2.5cm)
• UES and LES
• Function
• Transports food from mouth to
stomach
• Peristalsis and gravity aid food
movement
• Secretions – mucus
• No digestion occurs in the
esophagus.
 Stomach
• Structure – muscular sack that
can expand
• Extra muscle layer to aid in the
mechanical digestion of food
GASTRIC JUICES: it contains
• Water
• Hydrochloric Acid (pH = 2)
• Mucus
• Enzymes
• Hormones
• Intrinsic Factor
Stomach…cont’d

Stomach Related Secretions

1. Gastrin – hormone that stimulates stomach to release
secretions
2. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) – unravels proteins, kills bacteria,
activates pepsinogen, creates an acidic environment
3. Pepsinogen – once activated, begins protein digestion
4. Mucus – secreted by goblet cells, protects stomach,
moistens food
Stomach…cont’d

Digestion and Absorption:

• Mechanical
• Stomach muscles grind food into a paste called chyme
• Enzymatic/chemical
• Proteins uncoiled
• Protein digestion to polypeptides begins
• Starch digestion stops (why?) there are 2 reasons The two reasons
are:
1. absence of starch digesting enzyme in gastric juice.
2. highly acidic pH inside stomach does not allow salivary amylase to
continue its action
• Nutrient absorption in the stomach
Only:
• Some lipid-soluble compounds
• Weak acids, such as alcohol and aspirin
 Small Intestine (SI)
• Almost all digestion of protein, fat, and carbohydrate is performed
in the SI
• Function:
• Digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
• Vitamins and minerals do not need digestion
1. Nutrients are absorbed into either capillaries or lacteals
• Structure:
• Mucosal folds, villi, microvilli- nutrients absorption
• Goblet cells and crypts – create secretions
• Lacteals and capillaries- route for nutrient absorption
 Nutrient digestion in the small intestine

• Digestion - Mechanical
• Peristalsis pushes food through SI
• Segmentation mixes chyme with digestive enzymes
• Bile emulsifies fats
• Digestion – Chemical/Enzymatic
• The majority of chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine
• Pancreatic and SI enzymes digest carbs, fats, and proteins to
absorbable units
Nutrient digestion…cont’d
• SECRETIN is released upon the appearance of chyme in the SI 
SECRETIN stimulates the release of BICARBONATE from the
pancreas  BICARBONATE neutralizes the chyme

• Pancreatic juice and secretions from the intestinal wall cells

contain a variety of digestive enzymes that help to digest fats,
carbohydrates, and proteins

• BILE is released from the gall bladder upon the appearance of fat
in the SI
• BILE acts as an emulsifier, and without it, lipids might not come into
contact with pancreatic lipase, and would not be properly digested
Nutrient absorption in the small
intestine

• Most absorption occurs in the SI – 90%

• Nutrients are trapped in folds of the intestinal wall and absorbed

through the microvilli

• Each villus contains blood vessels

Nutrient absorption…cont’d

• Water-soluble nutrients are absorbed directly into the

bloodstream
• Fat-soluble lipid compounds are absorbed into the lymph
(lacteal) rather than the blood
• Duodenum and Upper Jejunum: most minerals (except
sodium, chloride, and potassium)
• Jejunum and Upper Ileum: carbohydrates, amino acids,
water-soluble vitamins
• Jejunum: lipids and fat-soluble vitamins
• Terminal Ileum: Vitamin B12
SI, Villi and lacteals
Circulatory System
 Large Intestine or Colon

• Structure
• Wider diameter than SI
• No villi or microvilli
• Colon “wraps around” SI
• Includes the cecum, colons, rectum, and anal canal
• Secretion: mucus
• Feces pass from colon into rectum
• Rectum- stores feces until excretion occurs via anal
canal
Large intestine…cont’d
 Large intestine…cont’d
Digestion:
• Undigested foods (fiber) enter into colon
• Little digestion occurs in the large intestine
• The large population of bacteria digests small amounts of fiber
• This bacterial activity forms: Vitamin K, Vitamin B12 and gases
Absorption:
• Little absorption occurs in the large intestine
• However, it does absorb: water, sodium, potassium, chloride, and
some of the Vitamin K produced by bacteria
• Unabsorbed nutrients pass into colon
• E.g. calcium, iron, cholesterol trapped in fiber
Enzymatic Digestion of Carbohydrates
Enzyme Source Substrate Product
Amylase Salivary glands Starches Maltose
Pancreas Amylose Dextrins
Dextrinase Brush Border Dextrins Glucose
cells
Maltase Brush Border Maltose Glucose
cells
Sucrase Brush Border Sucrose Glucose
cells Fructose
Lactase Brush Border Lactose Glucose
cells Galactose
Enzymatic Digestion of Lipids

Enzyme Source Substrate Product

Lipase Tongue Triglycerides Fatty acids

(Lingual) monoglycerides

Lipase Stomach Milk Fatty acids

(gastric) butter fats monoglycerides

Lipase Pancreas Triglycerides Fatty acids

(pancreatic) monoglycerides
Enzymatic Digestion of Proteins

Enzyme Source Substrate Product

Pepsin Chief Proteins Peptides
Pepsinogen Cells Amino
(HCl) acids
Trypsin Acinar Proteins Peptides
Trypsinogen Cells Amino
(enterokinase) acids
Chymotrypsin Acinar Proteins Peptides
Chymotrypsinogen Cells Amino
(Trypsin) acids
Enzymatic Digestion of Proteins…cont’d

Enzyme Source Substrate Product

Elastase Acinar Proteins Peptides
Proelastase Cells amino
(Trypsin) acids

Carboxypeptidase Acinar Terminal AA Amino

Procarboxypeptidase cells on the acids
(Trypsin) carboxyl end

Enterokinase Brush Trypsinogen Trypsin

Border
Enzymatic Digestion of Proteins…cont’d

Enzyme Source Substrate Product

Aminopeptidase Brush Terminal AA Amino
Border at the amino acids
end
Dipeptidase Brush Dipeptides Amino
Border Acids
Common nutritional disorders in the
digestive system
CONSTIPATION
• Occurs when the colon absorbs too much water, or if the
colon’s muscle contractions are slow and sluggish

CAUSES:
• Not enough liquids in the diet
• Not enough fiber in the diet
• Sedentary lifestyle
• Some medications
• Abuse of laxatives

• TREATMENT?
Common nutritional disorders …
DIARRHEA
• Occurs when the colon absorbs too little water

CAUSES:
• Most common: infection from bacteria, viruses, or parasites
• Antibiotics
• Chronic diarrhea may signal a more serious medical
problem (Inflammatory Bowel Disease)

TREATMENT
• BRAT diet (bananas, rice, apple sauce, toast)
• Rehydrate and replace electrolytes
Common nutritional…
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
• Basically, chronic “heartburn”
CAUSES
• Foods that relax the lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
• Frequently occurs in people with asthma
• Concern because of increased risk of esophageal cancer
TREATMENT
• Avoid foods that relax the LES
• Don’t lie down or exercise too soon after eating, raise the
head of the bed
• Wear loose fitting clothing
• Medications
 Common nutritional…
ULCERS
CAUSES:
• Helicobacter pylori infection (most
common), chronic use of anti-
inflammatory drugs, and disorders that
cause excessive gastric acid secretion
• Not caused by spicy foods or stress
TREATMENT
• Antibiotics
• Medications (acid suppressors)
Common nutritional…
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
CAUSES:
• Inability to digest lactose, caused by a shortage of lactase
• Symptoms: nausea, cramps, gas, and diarrhea

TREATMENT
• Don’t eat dairy products! Or eat less, and more processed
types (ex. Yogurt vs. milk )
Summary
• GIT and accessory organs makes the GIS
• Digestion in the GIS is both mechanical and chemical
• Absorbed into capillaries (blood)
• Digested carbohydrates and proteins
• Minerals
• Water soluble vitamins
• Absorbed into lacteals (lymph)
• Digested fats
• Fat soluble vitamins
• Cholesterol
• Hormonal controls in the digestive system
• Common nutrition and GI disorders-cause, symptoms and treatments.
 END
• Mouth ----------------anus