Chapter Two
Definition and Concepts of Organic
Agriculture
2.1 Definition of Organic Agriculture
The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
(IFOAM) defines organic agriculture as “… a whole system
approach based upon a set of processes resulting in a sustainable
ecosystem, safe food, good nutrition, animal welfare and social
justice. Organic production therefore is more than a system of
production that includes or excludes certain inputs” (Anon., 2002b).
Organic agriculture is a set of strict rules and complicated
practices that allow marketing of certified food products. Although
traditional farming which applies soil-building practices and no
synthetic inputs qualifies as “organic”, it is not usually considered
as such when discussing the present status, potential for
development, and related policy support of organic agriculture.
2.2 Why Organic Agriculture?
Conventional crop production uses large quantities of chemical
pesticides and fertilizers.
They are harmful to the environment as they kill beneficial insects
and pollute soil and water. In organic farming, the absence of
chemical sprays and increased biodiversity results in a better eco-
balance between pests and beneficial insects.
With frequent application of pesticides, pests can develop
resistance and thus cause additional damage.
Chemical pesticides can cause poisoning as well as long-term effects
on human health. Organic farming is free of chemical pesticides
and produces safe and healthy food crops.
Frequent use of chemical fertilizers and narrow crop rotation can
cause declining soil fertility, while organic farming improves soil
fertility.
In conventional crop, farmers depend on open markets, whereas in
organic crop there is usually a closer relationship with the buyer,
and an organic premium is paid.
2.3 Principles of OA
Organic agriculture is based on:
The principle of health
The principle of ecology
The principle of fairness
The principle of care
2.3.1. Principle of health
Organic Agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant,
animal, human and planet as one and indivisible.
This principle points out that the health of individuals and communities
cannot be separated from the health of ecosystems - healthy soils produce
healthy crops that foster the health of animals and people.
Health is the wholeness and integrity of living systems. It is not simply
the absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and
ecological well-being. Immunity, resilience and regeneration are key
characteristics of health.
The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing,
distribution, or consumption, is to sustain and enhance the health of
ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human beings.
In particular, organic agriculture is intended to produce high quality,
nutritious food that contributes to preventive health care and well-being.
In view of this it should avoid the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal
drugs and food additives that may have adverse health effects.
2.3.2 Principle of Ecology
Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and
cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them.
This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems.
It states that production is to be based on ecological processes, and
recycling.
Nourishment and well-being are achieved through the ecology of the
specific production environment. For example, in the case of crops this is
the living soil; for animals it is the farm ecosystem; for fish and marine
organisms, the aquatic environment.
Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit the cycles
and ecological balances in nature. These cycles are universal but their
operation is site-specific.
Organic management must be adapted to local conditions, ecology,
culture and scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling and
efficient management of materials and energy in order to maintain and
improve environmental quality and conserve resources.
Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance
through the design of farming systems,
establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic
and agricultural diversity.
Those who produce, process, trade, or consume
organic products should protect and benefit the
common environment including landscapes, climate,
habitats, biodiversity, air and water.
2.3.3 Principle of Fairness
Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness
with regard to the common environment and life opportunities.
Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the
shared world, both among people and in their relations to other living
beings.
This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture
should conduct human relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at
all levels and to all parties – farmers, workers, processors, distributors,
traders and consumers.
Organic agriculture should provide everyone involved with a good quality
of life, and contribute to food sovereignty and reduction of poverty.
It aims to produce a sufficient supply of good quality food and other
products.
This principle insists that animals should be
provided with the conditions and opportunities of
life that accord with their physiology, natural
behavior and well-being.
Natural and environmental resources that are used
for production and consumption should be managed
in a way that is socially and ecologically just and
should be held in trust for future generations.
Fairness requires systems of production, distribution
and trade that are open and equitable and account for
real environmental and social costs.
2.3.4. Principle of Care
Organic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and
responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current
and future generations and the environment.
Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to
internal and external demands and conditions.
Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and
increase productivity, but this should not be at the risk of
jeopardizing health and well-being.
Consequently, new technologies need to be assessed and existing
methods reviewed. Given the incomplete understanding of
ecosystems and agriculture, care must be taken.
This principle states that precaution and responsibility are the key
concerns in management, development and technology choices in
organic agriculture.
Science is necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is
healthy, safe and ecologically sound. However, scientific
knowledge alone is not sufficient.
Practical experience, accumulated wisdom and traditional and
indigenous knowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time.
Organic agriculture should prevent significant risks by
adopting appropriate technologies and rejecting unpredictable
ones, such as genetic engineering. Decisions should reflect
the values and needs of all who might be affected, through
transparent and participatory processes.
2.4 Certification and Accreditation
If a product is to be sold as organic, it needs to be
certified by an authorized and accepted agency.
The rules for a product to be certified organic are
laid down by the standards of the respective
country or private labels.
Compliance with organic standards is ensured
through inspection and certification.
Organic standards only define the minimum
criteria to be certified, not the best farming
practices.
Important requirements of most organic standards are
summarized hereunder:
No application of any synthetic fertilizers such as urea,
NPK, DAP etc.
No application of synthetic pesticides (including herbicides,
insecticides, fungicides) or growth promoters.
No use of genetically modified organisms (GMO) such as
Bt-cotton varieties.
Crop rotation (no cotton after cotton in the same field in
two subsequent years) and/or intercropping.
Prevent spray drift from neighboring conventional fields,
e.g. by growing border crops.
Maintain records and documents for inspection and
certification.
The steps involved in certification are:
registration of the producers,
provision of basic information on the crop and farm,
inspection and verification of the field and processing
unit,
inspection of production methods and practices by the
inspector of the certifying agency.
A transition period of 2–3 years is required during
which no inorganic fertilizer and agrochemicals are
used on the farm before which the produce can be
marketed.
2.4.1 IFOAM-Accreditation
Official regulations exist in many countries but differ in content and effectiveness.
While they may provide some protection in the domestic market, they are unlikely to
provide the kind of global assurance of equivalency that the international market
requires.
In 1992, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
established the IFOAM Accreditation Program (IAP) to provide international
equivalency of organic quality claims.
IFOAM accreditation is based on the international IFOAM standards (IFOAM 2000),
which are developed continually.
The IFOAM Accreditation Program is managed by the International Organic
Accreditation Service Inc. (IOAS) under a licensing agreement with IFOAM.
The IOAS Board of Directors is appointed by IFOAM and the program operates
independently from other activities of IFOAM. In 2000, the first products with the
“IFOAM-accredited“logo (see Figure 2.1), which was launched at Biofach 1999,
came on the market – an important step to world-wide harmonization.
Detailed information on the IFOAM accreditation program is available at
www.ifoam.org/accredit/index.html and the International Organic Accreditation
Services Inc. (IOAS), www.ioas.org
Today, 395 organizations worldwide offer organic certification services. Most
certification bodies are in Europe (160), followed by Asia (93) and North
America (80).
The countries with the most certification bodies are the US, Japan, China and
Germany. Many of the certification organizations also operate outside of their
home country. 40 percent of the certification bodies are approved by the
European Union, 32 percent have ISO 65 accreditation, and 28 percent are
accredited under the US National Organic Program.
Lacking acceptance and recognition between the different certification and
accreditation systems can contradict the objective of enhancing trade, market
development and fostering confidence. An important initiative for
international harmonization is the IFOAM Accreditation Program, which
assesses certification bodies against the IFOAM norms.
Currently 32 certification bodies operating in over 70 countries around the
world have voluntarily submitted themselves to the IFOAM accreditation
process. A recent development is the International Task Force on
Harmonization and Equivalence in Organic Agriculture (ITF) aiming at a
general consensus on harmonizing private with government and government
with government standards/regulations.
Figure 2.1: IFOAM-Logo as it can be used by the IFOAM Accredited Certifiers
2.4.2 Codex Alimentarius
Consumer demand for organically produced food products is on the rise
worldwide, providing new market opportunities for farmers and marketing
actors in developing and developed countries.
The need for clear and harmonized rules has not only been taken up by
private bodies, IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements) and state authorities (e.g. EU regulation 2092/91 within the
European Union), but also by the UN-Organizations FAO and WHO.
FAO and WHO have officially declared that international guidelines on
organically produced food products are seen as important for consumer
protection and information, and because they facilitate trade (FAO, 1999).
The Codex Alimentarius Commission, a joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Program, the body that sets international food standards, started to develop
Guidelines for the production, processing, labeling and marketing of
organically produced food in 1991.
Within one of the Codex Alimentarius committees, the one concerned with
food labelling (CCFL), a special working group with the active
participation of observer organizations such as IFOAM and the EU, has
worked intensively on developing such guidelines, following the 8 step
Codex procedure.
2.5 The steps involved in certification
The steps involved in certification are:
registration of the producers and processing,
provision of basic information on the crop and farm,
inspection and verification of the field and processing unit,
inspection of production methods and practices by the
inspector of the certifying agency.
A transition period of 2–3 years is required during which no
inorganic fertilizer and agrochemicals are used on the farm
before which the produce can be marketed.
Since crop yields during this transitory period are low,
farmers intending to go for organic farming would suffer
losses, unless some compensation is made for this.
Cont’d
Production of organic food therefore, requires considerable
attention, care and skills and above all a good link with its
market.
Furthermore, organic manure is not abundantly available
and on plant nutrient basis is more expensive than chemical
fertilizers.
What needs to be emphasized is that in the production and
marketing of the organically produced agricultural
products, the check is on the process of its production rather
than on the product per se, although quality standards also
have to be met.
On the contrary, in the production and marketing of most
industrial products, the check is on the quality of the
product. This would explain why the check on organically
produced food is so stringent.
2.6 Productivity levels under organic Agriculture
Comparing conventional and organic agricultural systems is not
straightforward:
Arable and horticultural crop yields from organic systems
tend to be less than in conventional systems.
Organic yields have been reported to be, on average, 50-95%
of the conventional yield, depending on species and position
in the organic rotation (Watson et al., 2002a).
Therefore, one issue is how to take account of the lower yield
potential of organic systems when assessing environmental
impact.
For example, should environmental impact be measured per
unit of land area, per unit of economic activity or per unit of
produce?
Crop Organic Convention Crop Organic Convention
al al
Wheat 4.0 7.7 to 8.5 Potatoes1 25 42.5
(winter)
Wheat 3.2 5.8 Cabbage 25 to 35 30
(spring)
Barley 3.7 6.4 Carrots 36 45
(winter)
Barley 3.2 5.8 Onions 20 35
(spring)
Oats 4.0 6.8 Apples 10.4 13
(winter)
Oats 3.5 5.5
(spring)
2.7 Challenges of organic farming in Africa
The following are constraints on the future development of
organic agriculture in Africa:
Traditional forms of production are coming under strain
because of the increasing size of the rural population.
In some countries it may be impossible to establish an
export operation because trade liberalization has not yet
taken root.
Certification costs are very high because certification is
conducted by foreign organizations.
Regulations in the important importing countries of the
world (North America, EU and Japan) constitute non tariff
barriers.
High illiteracy rates make farm record keeping a problem.
2.8 Opportunities for organic farming in Africa
There are the following opportunities for organic farming in Africa:
The potential for organic production and export in Africa is
high, especially in countries with liberalized economies.
The major opportunity lies in the fact that most production in
Africa is traditional and complies more or less to the principles
of organic agriculture as laid down in the IFOAM Basic
Standards.
Certification costs are reducing as local expertise in inspection
is built by foreign certification bodies.
Expertise in organic production and organization of exports is
building up as the organic market develops.
National organic standards and certification systems are being
developed. The movement towards harmonization of organic
standards.
