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Murnaghan, and Harry ‘Bateman. $2.75 A Guide to Operational Research, Eric Duckworth. Clothbound $3.50 Aerodynamic Theory, William F. Durand, editor-in-chief. Clothbound. Three volume set $17.50 (continued on back flop)Transmission-line Theory RONOLD W. P. KING, Ph.D. | Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics Harvard University | DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. NEW YORKCopyright © 1963 by Dover Publications, Inc. Copyright © 1955 by Ronold W. P. King. All rights reserved under Pan American and International Copyright Conventions. Published in the United Kingdom by Constable and Company Limited, 10 Orange Street, London W.C.2. This Dover edition, first published in 1965, is an unabridged and corrected republication of the work first published by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., in 1955, to which has been added a new Index of Symbols. Library of Congress Gatalog Gard Number: 64-8269 Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Publications, Inc. 180 Varick Street New York 14, N. Y.‘Theory as such is of no use except in so far as it makes us believe in the coherence of phenomena. Goprne, Maxims and ReflectionsPREFACE TO THE DOVER EDITION Although a decade has passed since Transmission-line Theory was first published, the material it contains is still modern and complete. ‘This characterization is likely to apply for many years to come. Indeed, as technology continues to require ever greater precision, the scienti- fically accurate treatment provided in Transmission-line Theory may find increasing appreciation and use by engineers. In this second edition a number of misprints and minor errors have been corrected. Tn addition, an index of symbols has been provided. Royop W. P. Kine Gordon McKay Laboratory of Applied Science Harvard University Cambridge, Mass., August, 1964PREFACE As a consequence of the ever-increasing preoccupation of physicists with problems in nuclear and solid-state physies, the scientific and tech- nical advance of electrical science is rapidly becoming the concern and responsibility of the engineer. As the research scientist knows only too well, an understanding of recent progress in applied electricity, especially in the generation, transmission, and radiation of electromagnetic energy at ever higher frequencies, requires a deeper appreciation of physical and mathematical fundamentals than can be provided by even a most thor- ough knowledge of electric-network theory as applied to lumped elements. ‘This deeper and more fundamental approach involves a knowledge of general electromagnetic theory. Perhaps the most interesting bridge between the specialized point of view of lumped-constant electrie circuits and the general and fundamental approach of electromagnetic theory is the conventional transmission line. Since its transverse dimensions satisfy the conditions of lumped-constant circuits, whereas its length is unrestricted, the electromagnetic aspect involving the concept of propagation is one-dimensional. Moreover, by demanding that equal and opposite currents and charges be sufficiently close together, the smooth line may be approximated by a recurrent network of lumped elements for most purposes. This is found to be a consequence of the application of general clectromagnetic theory and its specialization, subject to appropriate restrictions, to the boundaries of conventional transmission lines. Significantly it is possible to introduce some of the most fundamental concepts of electromagnetic theory with- out becoming involved in all the complications of vector field theory. In Chap. I the well-known transmission-line equations for an infinite line are deduced in the conventional manner and from electromagnetic fundamentals for various important cross sections. In Chap. II the derivation of the equations is specialized to lines of finite length, and the basic method of troating terminated lines is formulated. Chapter III is concerned with the impedance of sections of transmission line and their use as shunt and series elements in insulators, transformers, matching networks, unbalanced loads, baluns, shielded loops, and hybrid junctions. An important feature of the treatment of terminal impedance and input. impedance is the use of complex terminal functions. ‘These are very closely related to experimentally measured quantities, and they are viiviii PREFACE more convenient in analyzing many types of problems than are the reflection coefficients. Chapter IV is devoted to the study of distribu- tions of current and voltage, the transfer of power, and an analysis of distribution and resonance curves and their application in transmission- line measurements. Chapter V involves the analysis of discontinuities and nonuniformities along smooth lines. Included are discussions of the Weissfloch tangent relation and Deschamps’s method for determining the properties of junctions. Also treated are dielectric slabs as discon- tinuities, the measurement of dielectric constants and permeabilities, changes in cross section, terminations, bends, T junctions, and end cor rections, including those for transmission lines used to drive antennas. Chapter VI is concerned with transmission-line oscillators, coupled- circuit phenomena on lines, and radiation. Most of this book has developed from lecture notes for a one-semester graduate course on transmission-line theory which has been given at Harvard University for the last 10 years, It is concerned primarily with the high-frequency aspects of transmission lines and with their steady-state operation. It is designed to serve as a necessary and fun- damental introduction preceding serious work in wave guides and cavities as well as antennas. Although the treatment is predominantly analyt- ical, little more than a sound knowledge of differential and integral calculus and elementary differential equations is presupposed, together with a thorough background in alternating currents, Although the foundation of transmission-line theory on electromagnetic principles is a special feature of this book, it is possible to pursue a more conventional course simply by omitting Chap. I, Secs. 8 to 12, and Chap. II, Sees. 1 to4, It is to be expected that Chaps. V and VI would not be covered in such a plan. The author is indebted to several of his students for contributions and assistance. These include, in particular, J. Eisenstein, D. D. King, J. Porter, L. 8. Sheingold, J. E. Storer, ©. T. Tai, and K. Tomiyasu. D. B. Brick and J. B. Storer assisted with the proofs. ‘The entire manu- script was typed by Phyllis Kennedy. ‘The figures were prepared by E. Rising and his assistants. Ronow W. P. KinaCONTENTS Brahtaeh coh tee oe lect Note on the Numbering of Equations and Figures and on the Notation Onarrer I: Tae Inrintreny Lona Line. ©. 6 1 1 se 1, Methods of Anzlyzing the Transmission Line. . 2, The Conventional Derivation of the Differential Bauations of the Trans- mission Line . it gee 3, Potential Functions and Eleetromagnetic Preliminaries. 4, Electromagnetic Derivation of the Equations and Parameters for Bal- anced Infinitely Long Two-wire Lines ape Shae cee 5, The Balanced Four-wire Line... . . 2. ee ee ee 6. The Coaxial Line. bees 7. The Closely Spaced Two-wire Line with Unequal Conductors. e 8, The Shielded Line with Eecontric Inner Conductor... . . 9. The Shielded-psir Line. - Chee 10, Thres-wire Polyphase Line; Three-phase Cable. | |... 1. 11. The Coaxial Cage Transmission Line 08 Wat oe 12. Strip Lines ms, 13. General Solution of the Differential Equations for an Tnfinite Line 14, Interpretation of the Solution for the Voltage along an Infinite Line. Phase and Group Velocities . . . « ne PeoUmsh eee Fae vatbucs okies 1s vats | sugscae Cuarren II: Tae Terwiwaven Line. ©. 2 2 2 1 ee ee 1. Potential Funotions for a Terminated Line . i ee 2, Generalized Differential Equations ae 3, Terminal Zones; Coupling and End Effects. . natal bs 4, Equivalent Uniform Line with Terminal-zone Network 5. Evaluation of Constants in Terms of Boundary Conditions; Exponential Solution for a Terminated Line oe Infinite-ceries Form of the Exponential Solution Incident- and Reflected-wave Form of the Exponential Solution . Hyperbolic Forms of the Solution ng Instantaneous Values of the Hype 5 Solutions 10. The Propagation Constant... 11. The Characteristic Impedance Z 12. The Phase and Group Velocities of the Infinite Line 18. Special Forms of the General Parameters of the Line 14. Relation between Reflection Coefficient and Terminal Functions 15. The Phase and Attenuation Functions of the Terminations 16. Graphieal Representation of the Terminal Funetions in the Normalized Impedance or Admittanee Plane; Circle Diagram 17, Graphical Representation of the Normalized Impedance or Admittance in the Reflection-coefficient Plane; Smith Chart. Sete ix xiii ae Se 28 8 ShSSSeR8CONTENTS 18, Special Forms of the Terminal Functions and of the Refleetion Coefficient —Resistive Termination 19. Special Forms of the Terminal Funetions—the Predominantly Reactive Termination Pao eer rd 20. The Conducting Wire Bridge as a Termination; Resistive Wire . 21, Conducting Pistons and Disks as Terminations =. 22. Terminations with Negative Attenuation Function or Reflection Coeffic cient Greater than Unity 5 - aes Problems j Rae. ada (Cuarrer III: Inrepance aN ApMITrANCE, 1, Normalized Input Impedance and Admittance of a Terminated Section of Line 2. Input Impedance and Admittance 3. Extreme Values of tho Input Resistanee and Conductance 4, Extreme Values of the Input Reactance and Susceptance 5. Summary of Critical Values of Input Impedance and Admittance for a Section of Low-loss Line 6. Section of Transmission Line as an Insulator 7. Impedance Transformation Using a Network of Transmission-line Sec; tions—General Formulation 8. The Series Transformer 9. Matching Section with a Single Movable Stub 10. Matching Section Consisting of a Double-stub Tuner 11, Matching with a Shunt Section. . 12, Representation of a Section of Transmission Line by Lumped Equiv- alenis; Impedance, Admittance, and Scattering Matric 13. Unbalanced Load Terminating a Symmetrically Driven Shielded-pair Line 14, Series Stubs and Unbalanced Sections of Line; Folded Dipale; Balun; Shielded Loop. S : 15. The Hybrid Junetion for Transmission Problems Cuarrer IV: Generar, Anprirupr Retavtons ror Currext ann Vourace 1, The Distribution of Current and Voltage and the Transfer of Power along a Nonresonant Line 2. General Expressions for Curront and Voltage for an Arbitrarily ‘Tere minated Line When Driven by a Single Pair of Equal and Opposite Point Generators (or Their Equivalent) Anywhere along the Line 3. General Expressions for Current and Voltage for an Arbitrarily Termi- nated Line When Driven by Two Pairs of Equal and Opposite Point Gen erators (or Their Equivalent) Anywhere along the Line 4. General Expressions for Current and Voltage for an Arbitrarily Ter nated Line When Driven by Three Pairs of Generators (or Their Equiv- alent) Anywhere along the Lino . . Polar Forin of the General Expressions for Current and Voltage = ‘The Transfer of Power along a Transmission Line... . . - ~ . Resonance Curves and the Condition for Resonance are Distribution Curves. “ Resonance-curve and Distribution-curve Ratios; the Standing-wave Ree eaters Sen ee 2 47 120 127 128 130 133 133, 147 153. 187 160 164 172 174 Wz 184 190 8 Eye 243, 243 248, 249 251 254 257 250CONTENTS 10. Distributions of Current and Voltage in a Resonant Line; Components of Current and Voltage ; 262 11, The Widths of Resonance and Distribution Curves 1 eas 12, The “Q” of a Transmission Line... : 269 13. Theory of ‘Transmission-line Measurements 272 Problems Se eas 286 Carrer V: Disconminurnies aNp NoNuNirormrrms IN TRaNsaisston Lives. 288 1, Two-terminal-pair Networks in Transmission Lines 288, 2. Equivalent Transformer for Two-terminal-pair Network That Includes Sections of Transmission Line, Weissfloch Tangent Relation . . . 204 3. Experimental Determination of an Equivalent Ideal Transformer for a Reactive Network 208, 4. Deschamps's Graphical Method for Determining the Seattering Matrix and Equivalent Circuit of a Junction. 304 5, Measurement of Impedance and Refleetion Coefficient through a Junc- tion, . 34 6, Theory of a Dielectric aud Magnetic Slab or Bead in « ‘Transinission Line Bi7 7. The Maximum-Minimum-shift Method for Determining Diclectrie Con= stants and Permeabilities of Solids and Liquids and Equivalent Sections of Transmission Line for Symmetrical Two-terminal-pair Networks. . 329 8 Determination of Losses in Dielectric and Magnetic Materials Usi the Maximum-shift Method. . 341 9. The Double Bead and the Spacing of Beads for No Change in Impedance | 346 10. The Double-slug Transformer + 861 11, Lossy Terminations for Nonresonant Shielded Lines. 358 12, Closed and Open Ends as Reactive Terminations in Two-wire and Coaxial Lines - 804 13, Junction of Two Open-wire Lines with Conductors of Different Radi | 368 14. Change of Radius ina Coaxial ine... . 2 2. 2... BUT 15. Bend in a Two-wire Line A Paes nee 16, T Junction in a Two-wire Line... 389 17. Junction Networks for Series Branches in Two-wire Lines; Terminal-zone Networks for Stub-supported and Centertriven Antennas and Folded Dipoles . a eae - + 887 18. Change in Spacing of a Two-wire Line se ee! 19, Right-angle Bend in tho Plane of a Two-wire Line. . Sg 20, Bends and T Junctions in Balanced Shiolded-pair Lines oo 1a 21. Bend ina Coaxial Line; T Junction... + 426 22. End Correction for a Coaxial Line When Driving an Antenna over & Ground Screen 1 RUIN a” nd cc nelle ea Problems. . iad aca, 5. ae ae Cuapren VI: Transwisston-Line Osctutators AND Couruep Sections oF Traxsaission Line, Coe ee Sie hor eee 1, Frequency Characteristics of Simple Triode Oscillators with Transmise sion Lines as Tank Circuits 439 2. Frequency Characteristics of a ‘Transmission-line Oscillator with Coupled Secondary . aT 3. Electric Held of a Conduetor with Sinusoidally Distributed Current, | 454 4, The Electric Ficld of a Driven Section of Two-wire Line oe MOFxii 6, 7. 8. 9. CONTENTS Current and Voltage ina Line Driven by 9 Grae Section of Transmis- sion Line; Directional Coupler... aa aeetees a Coupled Transmission Lines... tas Admittance of Bridge-coupled Sections of Low-loss ‘Transmission Line; Coupled-cireuit Effects Involving Minima and Double Peaks ‘Transmission-line Measurements with a Multiple-frequency Source; Filter Sections. . Wise eee Radiation from Open-wire Lines Problems . Bibliography... eae eee 463 408 470 492 437 492 494 501NOTE ON THE NUMBERING OF EQUATIONS AND FIGURES AND ON THE NOTATION Chapters are numbered with roman numerals; soetions are numbered with arabic numerals beginning with 1 in each chapter; equations are numbered consecutively (1), 2), . .. , in each seetion with no reference to section number. At the top of each left-hand page is the chapter number; at the top of each right-hand page is the section number. When reference is made to an equation in the same section, only the equation number ig given, ¢.g., (5). When reference is made to an equation in another section in the same chapter, the section and equation numbers are given in the form Sec, 6, Bq. (12). When reference is made to an equation in another chapter, the chapter number, section number, and equation number are given, e.g., Chap. II, Sec. 4, Bq. (6). Figures are numbered with both section and figure numbers; thus Fig. 6.2 is the scoond figure in Seo. 6. Reference to a figure in another chapter includes the chapter number, e.g., Chap. Il, Fig. 7.5. By referring to chapter and seetion num- bers at the tops of the pages, any equation or figure is quickly found, Superior numbers refer to the Bibliography at the end of the book, ‘The following symbolism is used: Space veetors, whether real or complex, are in boldface roman type, A, x. Complex scalars (phasors) are in boldface italic, Z, or boldface Greek, . Real sealars are in lightface italic or lightface Greek, X,a. Matrices are represented by boldface roman, ¥.CHAPTER I THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 1, Methods of Analyzing the Transmission Line. The distributions of current and potential difference and the transfer of power along open and shielded transmission lines may be determined by several methods. The choice of method may appear to be of no practical concern, since it is assumed, quite naturally, that all methods must give the same correct answer. Actually the mathematical analysis of many physical phenom- ena is not easily reduced to right and wrong. A so-called solution is in almost every instance an approximation or idealization, and in conse- quence its correctness is a matter of degree. ‘This is true, in a peculiar way, of the current in a transmission line. But this fact does not in itself dictate a choice between the several different approaches to a prob- lem if they lead to the same final result. Obviously, in this event, all methods are correct to the same degree, and it would seem that one must be as good as another. Insofar as the ultimate formula is concerned, this is true. On the other hand, it is never sufficient to be provided merely with a formula that is to be used to compute actual results in an engi- neering problem without a complete statement of the cireumstances to which it applies and of the conditions under which it will yield accurate results. Such a statement is an essential part of every mathematical for- mula, notwithstanding the fact that it is often not provided and that correct answers are often obtained without it. It is the function of a mathematical derivation of a formula from fundamental principles to supply information regarding all restrictions, approximations, and limi- tations that are imposed, as well as to produce the formula itself. But even this is not enough. It is necessary also to examine the generality and the applicability of the fundamental principles that are accepted at the outset. The methods that may be pursued in analyzing the transmission line fall into two groups, those which are based on electric-circuit theory and those which proceed from electromagnetic theory. In the first group are two well-known methods. The one divides the transmission line into small elements each of which is represented by an “equivalent” circuit of suitably arranged elements of inductance, resistance, and capacitance to which Kirchhoff’s laws may be applied. By allowing the length of the element to vanish, the difference equations so obtained become the 12 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. I familiar first-order differential equations of the transmission line. ‘The second method in the first group is related closely to the one described. It treats the transmission line as a limiting form of an artificial line con- structed of recurrent sections of unrestricted impedances and analyzed in general terms by network theory. In the second group, which depends on electromagnetic theory, the attempt may be made to analyze the transmission line as a boundary- value problem, or it may be merely a question of deriving the transmis- sion-line equations. In either ease it is possible to proceed from the Maxwell equations defining the electromagnetic field or from the defin- ing relations for the scalar and vector potentials. ‘A detailed, critical evaluation of these several methods cannot be made at this point. The following comments, however, are offered as an introduction to further work. Throughout the first group it is assumed without proof that the methods of electric-circuit theory, in particular, the application of Kirchhofi’s laws and the description of circuits entirely in terms of resistance, inductance, and capacitance, are sufficiently gen- eral to serve as first principles. Actually this is true for the transmission line subject to definite conditions, which, moreover, cannot be deter- mined in any derivation that ignores them in its initial postulates. None of the methods in this group can provide formulas for the circuit param- eters, which must therefore always be derived separately. On the other hand, the entire first group, and particularly the first of the two methods mentioned, is characterized by the analytical simplicity of network theory. This is no mean advantage. The second method also brings into clear perspective the important relationships that exist between transmission lines and artificial lines. ‘The methods of the second group have the advantage over all others that they directly depend upon the first and most fundamental prin- ciples of macroscopic electrodynamics. They have the almost equally great disadvantage of sharing in the complexity of electromagnetic the- ory. This latter is especially true of methods that attempt to analyze the transmission line as a boundary-value problem, but also, though to a smaller degree, of methods that specialize the Maxwell equations or the equations for the potential functions in order to obtain the transmis- sion-line equations. In carrying out such » specialization all necessary restrictions and approximations may be made available, and formulas for all parameters of the line are derived in the process. As a consequence, it may be shorter as well as more rigorous and complete than the simplest method based on circuit theory, if the separate determinations of the several parameters are added to this. Finally the more general analysis using electromagnetic principles permits a study of transmission-line end effects and coupling effects in a region near the junction of the transmis- sion line with its terminations or with another line of different charac-Sec. 2] HE INFINITELY LONG LINE 3 teristics. These play a significant role in determining the apparent impedance of a termination as an actual load, as distinct from its ideal or theoretical impedance as an isolated entity independent of the line to which it is connected. However, to a degree satisfactory for most prac- tical purposes, such junction effects can be represented by an appropri ate circuit of lumped reactances. It follows that, subject to suitable restrictions that define the limits of conventional transmission-line anal- ysis, the entire problem can be solved in a form that makes use of the symbolism of network theory. That is, the variables are currents, volt- ages, and charges; the parameters are resistances and reactances, Just as in network theory, the specific values of resistance and reactance associated with a particular configuration of conductors must either be determined theoretically from electromagnetic principles or measured. It may be concluded that electromagnetic investigations are required in order to (1) specify the nature of the circuit, (2) evaluate the parameters involved, and (3) provide the restrictions on the generality of the circuit and the formulas for the parameters. However, electromagnetic theory is not needed to determine the properties of a given network of resist- ances and reactances. In order to simplify the analysis of a problem that in its fundamental sense is highly complicated, it seems desirable to begin with a study of the transmission line as a limiting case of a recurrent network of lumped resistances, inductances, and capacitances. The soundness of this method is then verified by reanalyzing the infinite line using the scalar and vector potential functions of general electromagnetic theory. In this way the formulas for the line constants are obtained with the dif- ferential equations. At a later point this same method is appropriately generalized to the finite line so that account may be taken of junction and end effects. 2, The Conventional Derivation of the Differential Equations of the Transmission Line. Short sections of two- and four-wire lines and of coaxial and shielded-pair lines are shown schematically in Fig. 2.1. For the open-wire lines the conductors are identical. Each is circular in cross section; its radius is a, and the separation between centers is b. In the case of the coaxial line the smaller conductor has an outer radius ai, and the larger conductor has an inner radius az and an outer radius a3. In carrying out the analysis it is assumed that each section of length Az may be treated as if equivalent to the circuit shown in Fig. 2.2, with fixed values of r, J, c, and g in the limit as Az is made to approach zero. For the open-wire lines 7; and J; are assumed to be equal, respectively, to rz and lz, r5 and Js, ry and ls. In the case of the coaxial line r; and , are not equal to rz and J;. Clearly, to replace each length Az of a transmis- sion line by the circuit of Fig. 2.2 implies that all such lengths are exactly alike, a condition true only for a line that is infinitely long. Inductance4 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I and capacitance and, to a smaller degree, resistance and leakage con- ductance per unit length differ near the ends of a line of finite length, however terminated, from their values far from the ends. Moreover the load may be coupled to the conductors of the line in a short region near their common junctions. If the assumption is made, nevertheless, that inductance and capacitance as well as resistance and leakage conductance AL rehe Iizac hee Tere Shielded-pair tine (d) Four-wire ine (e) Fia. 2.1, Sections of infinite transmission lines. per unit length are constants independent of the location of the element Az along the line, and coupling between line and load is ignored, the over-all error so introduced can be made negligible only by making the separa- tion of the conductors of the line sufficiently small compared with both the length of the line and the wavelength. In practice, the error involved in this assumption either is disregarded and consequently included with the terminal impedance or is designated as an end effect. Note that the assumed equivalence between the circuits in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2 is in no way qualified by restrictions limiting its generality, thus suggesting that there are no restrictions. This is a consequence of the fact that theSec. 2] ‘THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 5 restrictions that actually obtain are limitations on network theory as a whole and not on this particular application alone. Nor is the argument that the calculated results are verified experimentally entirely satisfac- tory except in a limited way, since for any given line the agreement ceases to be a good one when the frequency is raised to a sufficiently high value. It is shown at a later point that network theory is a good approxi- mation in transmission lines only if the conditions bKN ae KD are satisfied, where b is the spacing of a two-wire line and az is the inner radius of the outer conductor of a coaxial line. ‘The circuit of Fig. 2.2 may be analyzed as follows: First, since Az is small, the currents and the potential difference at the point z + Az may be nas ==: = Yaar? daar Fic. 2.2, Equivalent circuit of a section of an infinite transmission line. expressed in terms of the currents and the potential difference at the point z by means of Maclaurin’s expansion: + (f+ GQ) + - @ Vesa = Ve + (®), Ac (). ey... @ Next, upon applying Kirchhoff’s emf law around the rectangle formed by the input and output terminals of the section, the following result is obtained: Hue + Hasy.te) (01 + jials) B2 + Vesae — Hla + Tnsias)(r2 + jols) Ae — V. = 0 (3) With (1) and (2) this gives [on + (®) arte- ~ #[2+ a) et = +] ere det a0 + (@) ae ooo) (4a) Tepar ] (1 + jos) Az6 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I Collecting terms, dividing by Az, and then allowing Az to approach zero give Lalts + jess) — Insta + fils) + () =0 (40) ‘The current in an open-wire line can be resolved into two components, to be distinguished in the following by subscripts C’ (for codirectional) and O (for opposite). ‘These components are defined to satisfy the fol- lowing relations: Th, = Tore + Toe Tne = Tone + Tone (a) Teas = Tous Tox = —Tow (5b) It is possible and, for purposes of transmission, desirable to drive and arrange open-wire lines symmetrically in such a manner that Tee = 00 lon = ~loun = Le ©) Open-wire lines that satisfy (6) are balanced; if (6) is not true, the line is unbalanced. The components of current Ic,, if they exist on an open-wire line, are codirectional antenna currents that do not depend upon the constants r, 1, ¢, and g; hence they cannot be determined by transmission-line the- ory or ordinary electric-cireuit theory. Whether codirectional currents exist or not, transmission-line theory is meaningful only for the compo- nent Ine. If Ie: is not zero, the total current is given by (5a), with Ic. obtained from antenna theory and Jo; from line theory. In the follow- ing only Jo: is determined, and for simplicity it is assumed that (6) is satisfied, so that the subscript O may be omitted. For practical purposes (6) is always satisfied for the currents on the inner conductor and on the inner surface of the outer conductor of a coaxial line. Antenna currents, if they exist on a coaxial line, as they often do, are on the outer surface of the outer conductor. In a shielded- pair line unbalanced currents treat the line like a coaxial line, with the two inner conductors in parallel as one line and the inner surface of the sheath as the other, Antenna currents on the outside of the shield are also possible. Let the following shorthand be introduced and applied to a balanced open-wire line or a coaxial line: rentn lah+h z=rtjol 2) ‘The quantities r, , and z are the total resistance, inductance, and im- pedance per loop unit length. In two- and four-wire lines and shielded- pair lines with identical conductors, nom h=khSee. 3] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE a Assuming (6) to be true and using (7), (4) becomes ‘dV --@), ® Before Kirchhoff’s current law is applied at the point P, it is to be noted that the voltage across PP’ is £(V, + Vesa:). Then Tie = Thegae + a(Ve + Veras)(g + joe) Az (9) If use is made of (1) and (2) and the expression so obtained is divided by Az before allowing this to approach zero, the following equation is the result: ar y= — (®), (10) Tn (10) the symbol y stands for the total shunt admittance per loop unit length: al, y=9 + joc (1) ‘The first-order differential equations (8) and (10) are the well-known transmission-line, or long-line, equations. ‘The variables are readily sep- arated, and the equations replaced by two of the second order, as follows: =) (2), = (2), = yil, (13) It is convenient to define a quantity y, known as the complex propagation constant, as follows: t= yz = G + juc)(r + jol) (a4) ‘The real and imaginary parts of y are aandg. Thus y = a+4jé. The law of conservation of electric charge is expressed by the equation of con- tinuity. In complex form it is dl, Pa as) where g is the charge per unit length on one conductor. With (10), q = —Gy/a)V.. 3. Potential Functions and Electromagnetic Preliminaries. From the point of view of general electromagnetism the determination of distribu- tions of current and charge in a configuration of metallic conduetors (such as a transmission line) embedded in a poorly conducting or nonconduct- ing dielectric medium is a boundary-value problem involving the field equations of Maxwellt subject to appropriate boundary conditions. + Maxwell’s equations are formulated in standard books on electromagnetic theory. See, for example, Refs. 9, 21, 27, 28.8 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I Maxwell's equations may be regarded essentially as definitions of the fundamental electromagnetic-field vectors E and B in terms of current and charge. For many purposes it is convenient to introduce the scalar potential ¢ and the vector potential A in terms of E and B. In a homo- geneous isotropic medium characterized by the permittivity (dielectric constant) ¢, the permeability 4, and the conductivity ¢, these are defined as follows: ~ gad go B+ A ® curlA = B (2a) ' a6 div A = ~eng — 38 (2b) ‘The three vector operators in (1) to (25) have the following forms in cartesian coordinates (unit vectors in the directions of the coordinate axes are &, §, 2): grado = 258 4 536 4 058 @) ? aA, aA, es divA = aa + oy + (4) jf y 2 ; _ja aa cul =| 5° 5 5s (6) A, Ay A, With a periodic time dependence ine = gel Aina = Aci (6) the formulas (1) and (2a,b) become complex and independent of the time. ‘They are — grad @ = E + jwA (7) cua =B 6a) div A = ~jontg = -§% 6 (88) where the complex dielectric factor € is defined by (9a) and the loss tangent is (9) {If the dielectric constant and the conductivity are functions of the time in the sense that time lags occur and « and # become complex in the form ¢ = ¢ — je” andSee. 3] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 9 and where 8 = atk (10) The relative dielectric constant or permittivity ¢ and permeability y, satisfy the relations «=f wat (11a) where ¢ = 8.85 X 10-"farad/m wo = 4" X 10“ henry/m (118) In order to emphasize symmetry between analogous electric and mag- netic quantities, the reluctivity v (or reciprocal permeability) is useful: my = += 7.95 X 10* m/henry (Ile) ¥ , ho In most applications the relative permeability is real. However, when time lags in magnetization are involved, it is complex. Thus (12a) where (18b) ‘The last step in (12a) and (12b) assumes ARK (12c) Subject to (12c) and KL dim KL. (13a) the following approximate expressions are useful: we = ud — j(he + f)] = well — jhe) (130) Fo elt ithe — hed] = EL + jhe) (a3¢) Ele , 7 = = <[1 — jh. — hn) = (1 rt go gl — ihe — he) = FL ~ jt) (134) where Ie = het lim hp = he — fw (13e) h, Note that, when hn = 0, h, Convenient combinations of these ¢ =o! — jo”, the real effective quantities a, = 0! tae (@e) must be introduced and substituted for ¢ and ¢ in (Qa) and (9b). In order to avoid the distinguishing subscripts, « and ¢ are retained with the understanding that where required they must be replaced by « and , as defined in (9c).10 RANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I factors include the characteristic velocities: (14a) 14) "=e (1b) 1 v=—= ‘14¢) Ver 1 ea the phase constants: Bom 2 =o Vie (15a) bao movin (158) $= Vek = BVI ihe (150) and the characteristic impedances: fo= 7 = 376.7 ohms (16a) ' re tende (168) ee g = {t= 16¢) i V1 = jhe : ‘The elimination of the electric and magnetic vectors from (1) and (2a,b) using the field equations leads to the equations V7) + > = 0 a7) VA+ GA =0 (18) where the laplacian operator V? (nabla squared), when applied to a scalar, is defined by vig = div grad } (a9) ‘When applied to a vector it is VA = grad div A — curl curl A (20) In cartesian coordinates WA =£V2A, + 9V2A, + 2V2A, (21) 4 vw (2+ 5+3)o 22) an Y= Nazi t aye t oat where y stands for any scalar such as $, As, Ay, and A,. Solutions of (17) and (18) which give the scalar and vector potentials at all points in a homogeneous isotropic medium due to distributions ofSec. 3] ‘THE INFINITELY LONG LINE cea current and charge in arbitrary configurations of conductors are “a Lf vo oe as! (23) 1 fe . where n’ is the charge density on the surface element ds’ of the condue- tor at a point Q’(2’,y/,2’) and i’ is the volume density of current in the interior element dV’ at Q’(x',y’,z’). The potentials are calculated at a point Q(z,y,2) outside the conductors in the medium in which they are embedded. The distance between the point Q'(z',y’,2’) locating the ele- ment of charge or current on or in the conductor and the point Q(z,y,2) where the potential is calculated is R= V@-2PF U0 4 = (25) ‘The integration in (23) is over all charged surfaces; that in (24) is over the interior of all current-carrying conductors. Note that the solutions (28) and (24) take account of the boundary conditions automatically. If the current density is expressed in cartesian coordinates, i = Sie + fi, + Bi, (26) the three cartesian components of (24) are A= 84, + 9A, + 24, (27) A, = we I ona (28a) aff. apa (280) 4 il Ge (28) If all conductors are of sufficiently small cross section, for example, a circle of radius a which satisfies the condition Ila<«1 (29) it is proper to define the total axial current and the total charge per unit length in each conductor. Specifically the potentials calculated from cur- rents and charges in a cylindrical conductor of small cross section along a direction 2 are given byt fo ref ie ity! dr’ do’ (800) } These formulas are good approximations if the axial integration extends over distances at least as great as 5a (Refs. 9, 10, 61). Near the ends of a cylindrical 2 = v-f wade (80a) A= 2A,12 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I Since no currents are excited around the axis of the conductor, i, = 0, and therefore 4» = 0. As a consequence of the fact that the radial eur- rent density i, must be small compared with i, if (29) is satisfied, and that the contributions of oppositely directed elements in #4 cos 6 virtu- ally cancel in computing ene wlll es it follows that A, is so small compared with A, that it may be neglected. That is, A, = 0. Note that (30a) and (30b) must satisfy (80), which, with A = 24,, reduces to 4, r dr’ cos 6 dé’ de” (80¢) A, 2 +ifee ey) If the configuration of conductors consists of several conductors in dif- ferent directions, contributions to the vector potential by currents in each are like (30), with 2 replaced by a unit vector in the appropriate direction. The resultant vector potential is the vector sum of all these contributions. The resultant scalar poteritial may be obtained by inte- grating (30a) over all surfaces. Alternatively, as a consequence of (31) and the equation of continuity: dy. Et ieq =0 (82) in terms of the total current I, and charge per unit length g, it is possible to associate specific parts of 6 and A with one another and with specific parts of the distributions of charge and current. For example, if a trans- mission line with its terminations includes conductors lying parallel to the z axis, others parallel to the y axis, and yet others parallel to the 2 axis, the vector potential is given by (27) with (83a) “as Ea may! (830) “me L [eS nop de (83c) where A, is determined entirely by currents in the conductors parallel to the z axis, A, by the currents in the conductors parallel to the y axis, conductor or at bends, small errors corresponding to @ change in the length of the 2 integration by at most ta are involved. Note that the formulas are, in effect, the accurate potentials for a charge g or a current J concentrated along the axis of the ‘conductor.See. 4] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 13 ete. The associated parts of the scalar potential are oo = a | q (34) tone L few @) bo = By [toe (4) The following continuity relations must be satisfied: Be iE by FE + jot = 0 (85a) Ae + jE bey oe + jon = 0 (350) Bj Fo, 2 + jude = 0 (86) Note that gc is the charge associated with the current I, and that é., which is derived from qi», is the scalar potential associated with the vec- tor potential A., which in turn is derived from the current [.. 4. Electromagnetic Derivation of the Equations and Parameters for Balanced Infinitely Long Two-wire Lines. Since the trans- mission-line equations derived by network theory apply strictly only to an unending line in which every section is like every other, it is appro- priate as a first application of electromagnetic methods to rederive these Infinite fine to generator’ Fic. 4.1. Section of infinite two-wire line. equations for the infinitely long line. ‘The equations so obtained apply approximately to all parts of a uniform line of finite length except near terminations or other discontinuities. The specific conditions are derived in Chap. II. Consider a uniform two-wire line (Fig. 4.1) extending along the z axis of a rectangular system of coordinates. ‘The two wires lie in the yz plane with the center of wire 1 at-y = b/2 and the center of wire 2 at y = —b/2. + Superior numbers refer to the Bibliography at the end of this book.4 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I ‘The radius of each wire is a. It satisfies the inequality [lai a) Let it be assumed for the present that the inequality >a Q) is satisfied, so that distributions of current and charge in each conductor may be assumed rotationally symmetrical. Let the section of line to the right of a plane z = s or w= 8 —z=0 be designated the load. ‘The distance along the axis of each conductor to the left of this plane to axial elements dw’ at points Q and Qj is w’. The total axial current at the point Qi in conductor 1 is f,,(w’); the charge per unit length near this point is qi(w’). The current at point Q; in conductor 2 is Ix(w'); the charge per unit length near point @% is ga(w’). The conditions for a balanced line are assumed to be satisfied. They are Ix(w) = —h(w) = —Lw) qa) = —ax(w) = —g(w) 8) Az(w) = —An(w) $2(w) = —4:(w) @) ‘The vector and scalar potentials in (4) are defined at the equipotential sur- face of the cross section at w of the conductor indicated by the subscript. ‘The current and charge per unit length satisfy the one-dimensional equation of continuity: aw) _ ME) — jugiu) = 0 (6a) ‘The corresponding relation for the potentials that are defined in terms of 1,(w) and q(w) is Sec. 3, Eq. (31), with 4/aw = —@/d2, namely, 2Asw) _ ow ia j= ow) =0 (60) Note that, with the z component of See. 3, Eq. (7), viz., cr a _ F ai ee Ose + jwA, (6a) and (5b), the following equations are obtained by differentiation and substitution: 8°) , as, _ OE: Se += F () @A, . s So 4G = 55 Ee (6) so that for points on the surface of a perfect conductor, where E, = 0, and A, satisfy the equations % yao OAs = aot + OA. = 0 (6d)Sec. 4] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 15 ‘The potential differences between equipotential rings around the sur- faces of conductors 1 and 2 at opposite points Qi and Q at equal dis- tances w from the plane of the load at w = 0 are defined as follows: $1(w) — $2(w) = 261(w) @ Ax(w) — Az(w) = 24,(w) @) The last step in each equation follows from (4). The differential equa- tions satisfied by V(w) and W,(w) are obtained readily by combining (6b,c) with (7) and (8). ‘The results are FV) + gevc) = 2 Bs) (9) a wie (9) + 9H) = 7% where Ey, and Ey, are defined on the surfaces of the conductors. ‘The evaluation of the potential differences in terms of the current is accomplished as follows: Using Sec. 3, Eqs. (30a,b), the general definitions are Vw) = Pa f. g(w')P,(w,00") de” (10a) Wace) = gh. [ss Patew) a 0») where Pi(u,.o') = Se _ qa) and Re=Vw wl Fe R= Sw wp te (12) In order to evaluate (9) and (10) the charge per unit length and the current at the point Q’ may be expanded in Taylor series in terms of the charge per unit length and the current at the point Q. Thus the leading and first correction terms are aw’) = q(w) + (w’ — wy 29) (13a) Zw’) = E(w) + (w' — w) 2) tees (136) Using (5a), Eqs. (13a,8) may be expressed as follows: ate) = g(a) + 2 PE) Go! — (142) L(w') + L(w) + jog(w)(w' — w) (146) Finally the substitution of (14a) and (146) in (10a) and (106) gives the following general expressions for the potential differences along an infinite16 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. I uniform line: 160) = Fel atwrese) +L FO BO] as w.60) = 3b, ore) + nen 202] co) where kaw) = f P, (wy!) duo! = f. (b be = i (w! = w)P1(w,00") deo! i (w! — w) (& = b) au! +f (w' — w)[F(a) — F(b)] dw’ (17) and where F(a) = =! FQ) St ‘The first integrals, in the expanded forms (16) and (17), may be evaluated directly. ‘They yield (18) “(1 1) a7 -ome [.G-a =2ine (19) and f (w — w') & S ) dw’ =0 (20) It will now be shown that, subject to the condition \gol?<«1 (21) the second integrals in (16) and (17) may be neglected. Evidently, over that part of the integration for which (wo’ — tw)? is large compared with bY and a’, Rz and Ry differ negligibly from |w’ — w| and from each other. It follows that F(a) + F(b), so that there are no contributions to the integrals. ‘The principal contributions to the integrals occur when jo’ — w| is small, so that R, and R, are of order of magnitude b. But when this is true, it follows with (21) that lek] K1 ee = 1 — JGR — GRE + IG (22) where B stands for R, or Ry. ‘Hence the integrand of the second integral on the right in (16) is of the order of magnitude |F(a) — FQ)| = |9%Rs — Ra) ~ 50*(RE — RDI (23) whereas the integrand of the first integral is 1_1_R-% a RR” ReRe ‘The ratio of the integrand in the first to that in the second integral inSec. 4] ‘THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 7 both (16) and (17) is 1:|8°RaRy — j8*RaRo(Re + Rea)| (25) over a range where (22) is valid, so that with (22) the second integral is negligible, It follows that, for the infinitely long line subject to (21), fol) & ky = 2int (26) (wv) = 0 7) interesting to note that the imaginary part of (25) determines the radi- ation, which (21) makes negligible. With (26) and (27) the potential differences at a point Q along the line are Yew) = gw) 2 = (28) W.(w) = I.(w)lr (29) ‘The following symbolism is introduced in (28) and (29): Y= 9 + joe = jo FE = SOR (30a) _ _ a lr (806) These are the leakage conductance, the capacitance, and the external inductance per unit length of the infinite two-wire line. If y is complex, 1 also is complex, In the last step in (28) use is made of (5a). Note that GF = o'yE = —7y @) where z* = jul* is the external impedance per unit length of the parallel line. It is noteworthy that the correction terms in (13a,b) and (14a,b) make no significant contribution to the potential differences when the line is infinitely long and (21) is satisfied. The assumption of uniform current and charge per unit length is adequate in evaluating the potential differences and the constants for an infinite line. One of the differential equations for the two-wire line is contained in (28). The other is obtained from (6a) using (7) and (8). Thus HO _ jo) = Eula) — Batu) (32) where E,.(w) and ae are the axial tangential components of the elec- tric field at the surfaces of the two conductors. This electric field is proportional to the total current, so that Exo) = Kal) = BO (88a) “ust 2 Ex.(w) = Tne(w)zh = — (336)18 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I Note that fa.(w) = —Jus(w) for a balanced line and 24 = 24 for identical conductors. Hence Penta (33¢) The complex quantity z* = r! + ja is the internal impedance per unit length of the two-wire line. Its real part r! is the internal or ohmic resist- ance of a unit length of the ‘wo conductors. The evaluation of 2 from the ratio E,(w)/I,(w) along a cylindrical conductor is in the literature (Ref. 9, Chap. V). ‘The formula for high irequencies subject to (2) is L+j a Vous, 2 10 (34) 2a where . and ¢, apply to the conductor. Note that 2! = 224 for a two- wire line. Using (33) and (29), (32) becomes a ww) Aan tien = (# + jel) Iw) (35a) With (30a) in (28), this becomes 20) = y + jeo¥w) (356) "These are the familiar one-dimensional transmission-line equations. If desired, —8/a2 may be substituted for 4/dt, so that, with f=84 jolt =r t+ jo +h) =r + jal (36) the final equations are -%o . = alle) (37a) Lal ate ye) (376) ‘These are the equations ree in Sec. 2 by assuming that the line is equivalent to a recurrent network of resistive and reactive networks. This assumption has now been justified. Note that the constants of the line have been derived except for zi, which presents a special problem. In the rest of this chapter transmission-line theory is formulated under the assumption that the permeability of all media is real. Ti, as outlined in Sec. 3 and implied in (306), (35a), and (36), w is complex and given by See. 3, Eq. (12a), ie., =a! — ju” = ul — fhm) (38a) the complex external inductance = UL = jhe) (380) must be used instead of the real value /*, Then 2 = jel = jol*(1 — jhm) (39a)Sec. 5] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 19 and in (36) it follows that Beet jul = rt alin $j +) = r+ jel (396) Clearly the generalized value of r is rar + alte (40) where hy is the ratio of the imaginary to the real part of the complex permeability y. It follows that, whenever a magnetic medium with a time lag in magnetization response is involved, r as given in (40) must be used. For an infinitely long two-wire line (or approximately for the section of a long finite line that is sufficiently far from terminations or discon tinuities) (37a,b) are the correct equations for current and voltage. ‘The following conditions have been assumed or imposed: (1) The two conduetors are parallel and identical (2) |ga| «1 3) [gb/>?«K1 (41) (4) b> at (5) The line is infinitely long It is shown later that, by a modification in the formulas for the line con- stants, condition (4) can be removed and that, by introducing an appro- priate lumped-constant network at each termination or discontinuity, condition (5) may be eliminated. Condition (1) is modified to include conductors of unequal size in Sec. 7. 5. The Balanced Four-wire Line.* The method of analysis used in Sec. 4 is readily applied to the balanced four-wire Tine con- structed of identical and parallel conductors (each of radius a) which are so driven that conductors 1 and 3 on one diagonal of a square of side bare in parallel, as are conductors 2 and 4 on the other diagonal. The two parallel pairs form the transmission line (Fig. 5.1). The following conditions are assumed: Fic. 5.1, Four-wire line Iga] K1 Be >> at a) Iw) = hw) = —h(w) = —h(w) = —H(w) @) q(w) = gx(w) = —qi(w) = —qa(w) = —F9(w) @)20 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. where I(w) is the total current in the line and g(2) is the total charge per unit length. Satu) = dw) = — dal) = —9a(u) ® Auli) = An(wt) = —Au(w) = ~Ax(a) @ ‘The potential differences are V(a) = Galo) — daCw) = datu) ~ uw) = 2ouCu) © Wao) = Al) — Ano) = Antu) ~ Aut) = 2Aw) — ©) Vow) = gle [~ atwPs cove’ a ® waco) = gh, [7 owPstwu!) aut © where Pi(wyw!) = = = qe cues (10) and R= Vw WP Fe R= Vw wT Gy R, = Vow" — wy? $ Ot It is readily verified that, subject to the condition igo! «1 (12) it follows that Ro(w) = f * Pi (w,w’) dw’ =2mn—b_=2 (Ge . 0.3164) (13) av2 2ro, Qre, He = ree ree sr ence 9 O/ava) ° inb/av2) ee. Also tegtatat a = 42 (15) where, subject to bt >a? (16) 2{ is given by Sec. 4, Eq. (34), at high frequencies. ‘The same differen- tial equations as for the two-wire line apply to the four-wire line, but with these new values of the parameters. 6. The Coaxial Line. The analysis of the infinite coaxial line (con- sisting of a conductor 1 of radius a; in a conducting sheath 2 of inner radius a; and outer radius a;) may be carried out in the manner used for the two-wire line. If the conditions of balance for current and charge in Sec. 4, Eq. (3), are postulated, the potentials at an arbitrary point Q(r.8.2) in the dielectric medium (a: S r < a2) are given by a , oe) = Bef [7 acwrrseos.0y aw a via Aco) = Bf [7 neerrrcon' ey ao’ @ (3) 0 1%, where Pwww',6') = |S - + "| ReSee. 6] ‘THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 21 and (Fig. 6.1) Ru = V(w— wy? + sf? =r? + a? — 2a cos 6” (4) Re = Vw wy + & sf = r? + a2 ~ 2aer cos 6! (5) ‘The charge per unit length and the total current in each conductor are defined as follows in terms of the surface density of charge n and the axial component of the volume density of current i: qu(w) = 2rayny(u) @ ga(w) = 2warm2(w) = —gu(w) 1,.(w) = 2n f *s(w,r)r dr Law) = 2u [*inswryr dr —h.(w) x aw) ‘ran jy In defining s in (5) it is assumed for simplicity that the entire current, J;,(w) is concentrated in a thin layer on the inner surface of the sheath as fora perfect conductor. Fora good but imperfect conductor, the field in the sheath is included in the eval- uation of the internal impedance, Fic. 6.1. Coaxial line, Note that only R, in P,(w,w',6’) involves 6’. Tn evaluating (1) and (2) for the infinite line, g(w’) may be replaced by q(w), and J,(w’) by I.(w), as shown for the two-wire line. This leaves only P,(w,w',0") under the sign of integration. ‘The integration with respect to 2 may be carried out just as for the two-wire line. After the condition Ia? «1 (8) is imposed to eliminate higher modes, the steps in the analysis parallel those in Sec. 4, Eqs. (16), (18), and (19). ‘The result is - ‘eydw af (LL ree 82 [Pave 6") dw =f (aa Fa) =2nZ (0) The integration with respect to 6’ (which does not occur with the two- wire line) may be carried out using Pierce formula 523. Thus (uw) = wr [In (r2 + a — 2azr cos 6’)] = 2a, - tyne (10) - f. {In (r2 + a — 2ayr cos 6) 2 } A22 TRANSMISSION-LINE. THEORY (Chap. I E(w) 4 Dev Similarly A,(w) = qu) The potential differences between points Qx(a1,8,w) and Qa(a2,0,t0) on the surfaces of the two conductors are ae in@ V(w) = o1(w) — $2(w) = (12) th Quy a: ts Wu) = Aulw) = Ant) = 5 (13) Note that these results may be obtained even if the term 1/2, is omitted in (9) and V(w) is evaluated directly. This shows that the potential differences may be determined entirely from the charges and currents in the inner conductor. The potential differences in (12) and (13) may be expressed in the form of Sec. 4, Eqs. (28) and (29), viz., al(u) 1 Yeu) = Be as) W,(w) = L(w)l* (15) . _ re Pe with ysotie 9= iafa) ° = in @/an) fe wy a ona ‘As for the two-wire line, the internal impedance per unit length is Banta (a7) where zj and zi are the internal impedances per unit length of the inner and outer conductors. At high frequencies (a1 Vcore 2 10) alti fue alti |e 4= Fra V2, Bra, V20, ey ‘The remaining steps follow those for the two-wire line and lead to the same differential equations, but with the line parameters (16) and (17) instead of Sec. 4, Eqs. (30) and (33c). ‘The general conditions on the equations are like those in See. 4, Eq. (41), for the two-wire line except that conditions (1) and (4) in Sec. 4, Eq. (41), are not imposed. The electric and magnetic fields in the dielectric medium in the coaxial ine are obtained from the potential functions. Since rotational sym- metry obtains and A, is the only component of the vector potential, the vector relation {Sec. 3, Eq. (2a)] reduces to aA, B=0 B B,=0 (a9) in cylindrical coordinates. Hence, with (11), i Qave B= 6B, B= (20)Sec. 7] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 23 The electric field is given by Sec. 3, Eq. (1). With A = 2A, and rota- tional symmetry the only transverse component of the electric field is (21) The last step follows from (10). If the space between the two conductors of a coaxial line is not filled by a single homogeneous isotropic dielectric, complications arise which can- not be solved without the introduction of more advanced mathematical methods. Two cases are of interest: (a) If the inner conductor is coated with a good dielectric of uniform thickness and the rest of the space between the two conductors is air, a so-called guided field exists in the dielectric which propagates in a manner related to that of the single-wire diclectric-coated line.** It cannot be analyzed by ordinary transmission- line theory. (b) If the space between the conductors is filled with two different dielectrics each extending from the inner to the outer conductor, but the one only over an angle @ and the other over the remaining angle 2x — 0, the line behaves essentially in the transverse electromagnetic (TEM) manner characteristic of the coaxial line with a single dielectric, provided az is sufficiently small. The capacitance per unit length of the two-dielectric line is a parallel combination of the capacitances per unit, length of the two sectors with different dielectries. 7. The Closely Spaced Two-wire Line with Unequal Conductors.1*° In the general study of the two-wire line in Sec. 4 the conductors are assumed to be of equal radius, and the condition b? > a? is imposed from the outset in order to keep the transverse part of the analysis simple while the complications resulting from the occurrence of both transverse and axial variables are unresolved. An important result of this analysis is the demonstration that, subject to the conditions imposed, the trans- verse and axial problems are independent to a high degree of approximation. Indeed the final differential equations are the same for all the lines inves- tigated. They involve only the axial variable z, whereas the solutions of the several transverse problems appropriate to the cross-sectional boundaries are contained in the formulas for the parameters of the partic~ ular line. Since the conditions ensuring this effective independence of axial and transverse problems are primarily those requiring the cross- sectional dimensions to be small, these are better satisfied for more closely spaced two-wire lines. So long as the conditions [ga| <1 and |Ga| < 1 are satisfied, there is nothing in the analysis which requires the two radii to be equal. It follows that the formulation of the problem of a balanced two-wire line consisting of two parallel conductors of radii a, and az separated a distance b between centers which satisfies the conditions b>atar [gb «K1 0)By ‘RANSMISSION-LINE. THEORY [Chap. I where the first inequality merely means that the two conductors may not actually make contact, is readily achieved. ‘The separation of the axial and transverse parts of a function, such as the potential difference Vegi—o: or Wee Au de which satisfies the scalar wave equation aw, ow, , ew, an? Gy oe is accomplished by the separation of variables. By setting +¢W,=0 (2) W, = F(ay)f) @) and substituting this in (2), the following result is obtained: 1 [aF@y) , #F@y)| _ 1 of@ ~ ren |Past ae |< te In order that the mutually independent sides of this equation may be equal for all values of the variables, they must both equal a constant, which, however, may be multivalued. Let this constant be R*. ‘Then, with (3), the following equations are obtained: ow, 2 Be ort — kW, = © aw, , ow, ol (6) For a two-wire line with identical conductors, the axial equation for W, is Sec. 4, Eq. (9b), with Sec. 4, Eqs. (33a,b,c), viz., @) where 2! is the internal impedance per unit length of the two-wire line. It is now clear that the approximations involved in the analysis of Secs. 4.and 5 in which W, = he @) are equivalent to setting @) in (5). Note that the equation is then valid only on the surfaces of the conductors, since the right side is obtained from the electric fields on these surfaces. With z'/al* extremely small for good conductors, &? is small in magnitude compared with |g|?. Nevertheless &* must be retained in (5), since when the dielectric medium is perfect and g* isSee. 7] ‘HE INFINITELY LONG LINE 25 real, the propagation constant y in yoke (19) is a pure imaginary unless differs from zero, A nonzero value of & implies imperfect conductors and is necessary to maintain W, and J, finite. On the other hand, the contribution of a very small value of k* to the transverse problem defined by (6) is insignificant. Accordingly (6) is replaced by (11) ‘The solution actually obtained in Sec. 4 is for W, as determined from (7) and (11). ‘Thus account is taken of the large but finite conductivity of the conductors in determining azial distributions that involve an unrestricted length of conductor, but not in determining the transverse distributions that involve only the very much restricted cross sections. The problem is to solve the two-dimensional Laplace equation (11) subject to the condition that A, have a constant but different value on each of two circles of given radii a, and a. These are the circular cross sections of the conductors. The appropriate solution is A, = Kin 2 (12) m where oo n=V@etdity n=Ve-ad ty (as) and d is a constant length to be determined. K in (12) is not a function of zand y, but of zalone. It is verified by substitution that (12) satisfies (11). It remains to be shown that the equipotential surfaces are circles. For this purpose let (14a) so that (140) and (15) ‘Thus contours of constant p define equipotential lines in the plane or infinite cylinders in space. Next let (14) be squared and (13) substi- tuted in it, ‘The result is tO ty = eed? +) (16) ‘This can be rearranged as follows: a - Section ie (@ = dcoth 2p)? + y? = d* (coth 29 — I) = rg, (AT) This equation defines two families of circles—the one with positive and the other with negative values of p as parameter. Thus it has been26 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I proved that contours of constant: p, which coincide with contours of con- stant vector potentials, are circles. Since an entirely similar analysis can be made for the scalar potential $, it follows that equipotential lines Jor both scalar and vector potentials are circles of constant p. ‘The range of pis from — 2 to +e. The centers of the circles are at z=dcoth2 y=0 (18) ‘Their radii are a isinh 2p] (19) ‘The two families of circles are shown in Fig. 7.1. They are divided by 2 p=0 Fie, 7.1. Equipotential circles for two-wire line, the straight line z = 0 or p= 0. The points s = +d, y = 0 are for p= te, Consider a particular pair of circles defined by p = pi = |p:| and =p: = —|p2|. The centers of the circles coincide with the axes of the two conductors at 2 = 2 = dcoth 2p) =n=0 (20a) z= 22 = —d coth 2\ps ye (200) The radii are the same as the radii of the two conductors, viz., asa ¢ 1a) h 2p sinh 2a Note that a sinh 2ips| = a; sinh 2p, wySec. 7] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 27 With (21a) in (20a,b) the locations of the centers may be expressed as follows: 2 = a cosh 2p; n=0 (22a) t= —a:cosh 2p: y2 = 0 (220) ‘The distance between centers, which is the spacing between centers of the two-wire line, is b = a1 — 42 = a: cosh 2p: + a2 cosh 2p2 (23) In order to express p: and p2 (and with them the potentials on the two circles) in terms of b and a; and as, p2 (or p:) may be eliminated between (21b) and (23), Thus b = a; cosh 2p: + Va} + a? sinh? 2p, (24) ‘This can be solved for p: to obtain 24a? — at 2p, = cosh- + GE = 4 cosh-1 yy (25a) ab b+ a} — a? 2a ‘The symbols y: and y+ are defined in (25a) and (25d). It follows with (15) that the components of vector potential on the surfaces of the two conductors of radii a, and az, with centers separated a distance b, are Similarly 2: = — cosh! = — cosh"! 2 (25b) Ay, = 2Kp: = K cosh yi (26a) Ax, = 2Kp; = —2K|pso| = —K cosh os (260) The vector potential difference is W, = Ai, — Ax = K(cosh™ y: + cosh! ya) (27) ‘The constant K in (27) may be evaluated by comparing the solution of Sec. 4, Eq. (29), with (27) when this is specialized to wires of equal radius and sufficiently great separation by setting a, = a2 = a and utilizing the inequality b? >> a?, Subject to these special conditions, h (28) Using the standard relation between arc-hyperbolic and logarithmic functions, viz., 1b _ fe, (oy cosh! 5 = In [zat ma) -1| (29) it follows that with b* > a* Bis cosh! y; = cosh! yz = In (30)28 'TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I Hence after the substitution of (30) in (27) it follows from.a comparison. with See. 4, Eqs. (29) and (300), and y = y= 1/», that _t K-55 (31) so that the vector potential difference is 1, "i ey : W, = 55 (cosh va + cosh ys) (32) ‘The corresponding solution for the scalar potential difference has a dif- ferent constant. It is q . F Tyg (GOSH? vs + cosh? Ye) (33) It is now convenient to define the external inductance per unit length and the admittance per unit length y = g + jue as factors of current and charge in the relations nat Vag 34 WwW. ory (34) as in Sec. 4, Eqs. (28) and (29). ‘The use of (32) and (83) in (84) gives the following formulas for the parameters of the closely spaced two-wire line: ka ae (cosh! ¥s + cosh-! Yo) (35a) g = 2ro(cosh! yx + cosh! Yx)~! (350) ¢ = 2me(cosh~! 1 + cosh! y)-! (5c) ‘The arguments are 24a? — at “es pana 6) where b is the distance between centers of the two parallel conductors of radii a, and az. For widely separated conductors for which the conditions b? > aj and b? >> af are satisfied, b hese ean (7) A —— Vai In (6/-Vaia2) In (6/-Vana2) ‘The most interesting and important special case is when a1 = a2 In this case (38) and (39a)Sec. 7] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 29 so that = # gosh 2 B= Ecos? & . © = Seah! (72a) 39%) Note that with (29) it is possible to express the general parameters for arbitrary spacing of identical conductors in the same form as for a spacing that satisfies the inequality b* >> a? merely by defining an effective spacing b,, which replaces b. This effective spacing is obtained from (29) to be meee -t[4+f-@] (4 With (40a), (39b) may be expressed as follows: ee ig ee na In (./a) In (Ja) Clearly, when b? ig sufficiently great compared with a, these formulas reduce to those in Sec. 4, since b, + b when the condition b? >> a? is satisfied. A second special case is when conductor 2 has an infinite radius, so that its surface becomes the zz plane, given by p = p: = 0. In this case it follows from (22a) that 1 = cosh? 2 m2 =0 (41) b (406) where 2; is the distance from the center of conductor 1 to the plane. Since with (260) As, = 0, it follows with (27) and (81) that W. = Ay & cosh 2 (42) Let the distance 2; be expressed in terms of the full line spacing b between the conductor and its image in the conducting plane. That is, let n=} 3) Then, with (82) and (35), le x 15 _ Qro _ we = pp cosh' 5g = 9 = cosh? (2a) ° ~ cosh? (2a) (44) Note that It is one-half and g and ¢ double the corresponding value for a two-wire line of identical conductors spaced a distance b between centers. This follows from the fact that W, and V measured between the conduc- tor and conducting plane, a distance b/2, are one-half the values measured between two identical conductors separated a distance 6 and carrying equal and opposite currents and charges. ‘The same results can be derived directly from the theory of images.30 'TRANSMISSION-LINE. THEORY (Chap. I ‘The internal impedance per unit length is modified when two parallel conductors are close together by the so-called proximity effect. The density of axial current is increased in adjacent parts of parallel con- ductors with oppositely directed currents and is decreased at more remote parts, This increases the effective internal impedance, since more cur- rent is confined to a smaller volume. Accurate formulas for zj for one cylindrical conductor in the presence of another with different radius are not available. If the two conductors are identical, an approximate high- frequency formula involves an effective radius a, =a V1 — (a/b)? (45) in place of a in the formula for z{ for a cylindrical rotationally symmetri- cal conductor. ‘Thus for each conductor? pelts eed a= a vi Qa — @a/by'| (46) ‘The internal impedance per unit length of a two-wire line is 2° = 22). For the single wire over the conducting plane, z = 2{ if losses in the plane are neglected. ‘The transverse electric and magnetic fields in the medium surrounding the two conductors are readily obtained. Since by definition B = curl A, it follows from Sec. 3, Eq. (6), that, when A = 24,, aA, aA, 2, = 36 * 7) ‘The slope of a magnetic line is dy _ By ans (48) so that its contour must ay the ae B, dy — B, dx = ay +2 BA: dy = dA, =0 (49) Integration yields a — (50) ‘Thus the magnetic field is directed along contours of constant vector potential, that is, along the circles p = constant. ‘The direction is speci- + More accurate fo of outer radius a and mulas for use at lower frequencies and with tubular conductors ner radius ka are! _ yn [ BA. 4, 82 —B) , BO — 108 +429 f Aen [245+ evga ts] 45 ae [lp Stl, 2 BO wa+4Iy aetme tie ote] (480) where A = a V/neea, B = a/a, = (1 — (20/b)*\-4, and ry = 1/roa*. ‘These formulas ‘are good approximations provided that r/ro Z 2. Still more accurate but also much more complicated formulas are given in the literature.**Sec. 8] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 31 fied by the right-hand screw relation with respect to A. Since A reverses with p, the direction of B around the circles p = constant, with p > 0, is opposite to that around the circles p = constant, with p < 0. The electric field satisfies the relation E = — grad @ — jwA (1) Hence, with A = 24,, the transverse components are = -% =o z= -3 4 (52) Since the gradient of a scalar function is a vector in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of the function, it must be perpendicular to the equipotential lines given by p = constant. Thus the electric lines must be circles perpendicular to the circles of constant p. As such they pass through the points z = +d, y Since the volume density of current in the dielectric medium if this is imperfect is given by oE (53) i where E is the field in the dielectric and ¢ is its conductivity, it follows that the E lines are also the lines of flow of electric charges from one conductor to the other through the medium. 8. The Shielded Line with Eccentric Inner Conductor.’ Tf the inner conductor (radius a;) of a coaxial line is displaced so that its axis is at distance D from the central axisof the enclosing sheath (inner radius a:), as shown in Fig, 8.1, the solution of the transverse problem may be obtained from the results of Sec.7.Itisshown v2 in Sec. 7 that the circles p = constant (aN are equipotential lines in each trans- ; verse plane of a two-wire line. ‘The solution of the transverse problem of the two-wire line was achieved by identifying the circular metallic sur- faces of the two conductors which Fig, 8.1. Shielded line with eccentric have radii a, and az and centers at inner eonductor. 2=2= |x|, y=0 and z=2,= —|z2|, y = 0 with the circles p = p: = |p| and p = pr = —|ps| according to the relations ® = a cosh 2p, ®2 = —@s cosh 2|p2| ql) The same identification with equipotential circles may be carried out for a shielded line (with circular metal surfaces of radii a, and a2 with centers at z= 21 = |x|, y= 0 and x = 2 = [2x], y = 0, shown in Fig. 8.1)32 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I by setting =a, cosh 2p, zz = az cosh 2pz @) Note that for the two-wire line p: is positive and p» is negative, whereas for the shielded line p; and p; are both positive. The axial separation of the two conductors of the shielded line is D = x — x = az cosh 2p; — a, cosh 2p; (3) Since, as shown in Sec. 7, the following relation is satisfied: a, sinh 2p; = az sinh 2ps a) it is possible to eliminate first pi, then ps, from (3). The results are a= a}- Dt 2p. = cosh ly cosh"! Ye a) 2a? + D? 2p2 = cosh-! 2 ge = cosh Ye (5b) where Jie and Ys. are defined by (6a) and (5b). ‘Thus it has been shown that a shielded line with inner conductor of radius a, and outer conductor of inner radius a2 > a1, with axes separated a distance D, may be identi- fied with two circles of constant p defined by (5a,b). The vector and scalar potentials are obtained from the values of p by multiplying by the appropriate constant. ‘Thus I, I, Au = Port Ce An = 52m + Ca (6a) ora Pt Cs b= he te tO (6) It is evidently possible to add the arbitrary constant potentials C, and C, and still satisfy the two-dimensional Laplace equation. This is done so that the potentials may be referred to zero at the shield by setting aig dae Com — ge Per Com — ae Pon @ so that Az, = 0 and @: = 0. The potentials of the inner conductor are then equal to the potential differences as follows: W, = Ay — An = Au = fat (cosh? Yre — cosh! Yr.) (8a) V = 1 = b= G1 = ohh (Cosh Ye — Combe! Yn) (86) With the general formula cosh-! z — cosh! y = cosh! [zy — V/@? (9a) it follows that cosh! Yie — cosh“! Yay = coshmt HE at = Dt (98)Sec. 8] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 33 1} +a} — Dt Hence cosh Ea — (102) = 1 ceay i ta DP V = Be com Ea (106) so that the external inductance per unit length of an infinite line is a t= Fe = E cosh (1a) Similarly oa ay ee (118) Dg 7 ne oo where y = g + jwe is the admittance per unit length. It follows that Qa 9 = cosh" [Caf + a} — D9) /2aran) a2) _ ne —_ °* cosh" ((a} + a? — D?)/2a.a3) Note that, when the ance D between axes is sufficiently small so that the following inequality is satisfied: (13) D'a} (18) (17) reduces to wtp-9 as) ‘This is the fundamental relation between the distance D of a line souree from the axis of a metal cylinder of radius az and the distance b; + D from the same axis to the image of the line source. 9. The Shielded-pair Line. Consider four infinitely long parallel con- ductors each of radius a arranged side by side, as shown in Fig. 9.1. Fic. 9.1, Four-conductor line that maintains a constant potential on the circle of radius as, From left to right the conductors are numbered 3, 1, 2,4. ‘The currents and charges in the four conductors are related as follows: Ta, = Tsp = ~The = —Tee (1a) H=B=-Hn=—-u (1b) The distance between conductors 1 and 2 is b = 2D; that between 1 and 3 and that between 2 and 4 are b;, where, from Sec. 8, Eq. (17), aj — a} — D? b p= 2a cosh 2pr (2) With this choice of distances it follows from Sec. 8 that the currents andSec. 9] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 35 charges in conductors 1 and 8 make the circle of radius az an equipotential surface with p = pz = constant, as given by See. 8, Eq. (5b). By sym- metry the currents and charges in conductors 2 and 4 (which are oppo- sitely directed from those in 1 and 3, respectively) also make this same cirele an equipotential surface with p = —|p2| = constant. It follows by superposition that the currents and charges in all four conductors make p= px — px = 0 on the circle of radius a2, provided the two pairs of con- ductors do not interact sufficiently to alter significantly the distribution of current in the conductors. This is true approximately if the condition bt = 4D? > at (3a) is satisfied. Subject to this condition, the circle of radius az in space may be replaced by a conducting sheath of radius a2 enclosing conductors 1 and 2, and the image conductors3 and 4 removed with- out changing anything electrically within this circle. Conductors 1 and 2 in the sheath thus form a balanced shielded-pair Tine, as shown in Fig. 9.2. The potential differences between con- ductors 1 and 2 in Figs. 9.1 and 9.2 are thesame. Whereas they cannot be readily Fra. 9.2. Shielded-pair line. obtained when the radius a: of the con- ductors is unrestricted, they are evaluated easily when a; is sufficiently small so that the conditions (3a) and aj — D*?>a? (3b) are satisfied. Since the two-wire line consisting of conductors 1 and 2 is balanced, it follows, just as for the open two-wire line in Sec. 4, that, in the notation of Sec. 4, T,(w) = —hi(w) q:(w) = —gi(w) (4a) Aa(w) = —Ax(w) — $2(w) = —¢u(w) (4b) where the potentials are determined on the surfaces of the conductors. It follows that the potential differences are W.(w) = Au(w) — Ar(w) = 24..() (5a) Vw) = oi(w) — o2(w) = 2oi(w) (5b) Hence it is merely necessary to determine the scalar and vector potentials on conductor 1 as maintained by the charges and currents in all four con- ductors in Fig. 9.1. ‘This potential is equal to that maintained by the charges and currents in the two conductors and in the sheath in Fig. 9.2. Using the notation of Sec. 4, the two-conductor problem is readily36 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I extended to four. Thus for the infinite line Wal) = HE be yea) = Ste © ee teeta > wie [Geese om and Ru=Vw—wP tq Re=Vw—wP FID Ru=V@— wet GF 2D Ru= Vw—wP +h ‘The integration gives ky = 21n 22 — gin bt 2D @) a 5 ‘The distance b, may be eliminated using (2). ‘Thus, with (8b), _ 2D(a} — D*) (aj — 6/4) — b?/4) ko = 2 In ata FD) = =2In aa + 0/4) (9) where b = 2D is the distance between centers of the shielded pair, each of radius a, and as is the radius of the shield. Tt follows, as in See. 4, that the line parameters for the balanced shielded-pair line are ratte game oa (10a) where ko is as in (9). Note that, when the shield is go lange that the inequality af > 62/4 is satisfied, (8) reduces to the values for the open-wire line. Sinee the conductors are sufficiently far apart and far enough from the shield to satisfy (8a,0), the internal impedance per unit length # = 1+ je! of the shielded two-wire line is obtained fram the same formula (See. 4, Eq. (34)] as for the open two-wire line. ‘To this must be added the impedance per unit length of the shield, in which equal and opposite currents are induced on opposite sides. An approximate for- mula (Ref. 4, page 44) is w= 1ats luc _(b/2as)* ta: W201 — (b/2a2) The total internal impedance per unit length is 2z' + z{. If the shield is made of material different from that of the inner conductors, o, and p, in (10b) differ from these quantities in Sec. 4, Eq. (34). It is possible to drive the shielded-pair line so that the two inner con- ductors are in parallel, with equal and codirectional currents and equal charges of the same sign, and the sheath is the return conductor, with a total current that is equal in magnitude to the sum of the currents in the inner conductors, but opposite in direction, and a total charge per unit length which is equal in magnitude to the sum of the charges per (106)Sec. 9] ‘THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 37 unit length in the two inner conductors, but of opposite sign. For this method of driving, the line has properties similar to those of a shielded line with eccentric inner conductor. If the radius a; of the identical inner conductors is sufficiently small to satisfy (3a,b), there is no signifi- cant proximity effect. For each conductor the sheath is an equipotential surface, as analyzed in Sec. 8. Its potential with only one of the inner conductors present is proportional to px, where, from Sec. 8, Eq. (5b), 2p: = cosh"? @ (i) Since the second inner conductor maintains the same potential on this circle, the total potential of the sheath is proportional to 4pz, For a current I,(w)/2 and a charge per unit length g(w)/2 in each inner con- ductor and a current —1,(w) and a charge per unit length —q(w) in the sheath, the potentials of the sheath are Hw)? al pw a? + D? : cosh~! © Ax(w) = 4o2 + Ca 2a,D +, (12a) x(t) = “sa dos + Cy = © cosh eae +C, (12) The in on each inner conductor may be obtained from Aut) = HOP a, + ey (18a) dx(w) = anya 2 he + Cy (138) where ko is determined for the two conductors with their images shown in Fig. 9.1, but with currents and charges that satisfy the conditions T,,(w) (14a) a(w) (146) ‘Thus ko is like (7a) but with different signs. ba (ler eel eae! , re ff (hth-k- dew (15) where the ’s are as defined in (7b). ‘The integration gives fy = 2 In 1+ 2D) (16) 2Dar It is assumed that the conductors are sufficiently far apart to satisfy the conditions aiK4D* af Kd? a7) where b; is given by as)38 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. With (17) and (18) — De b= 2in te? (as) I so that Anew) = EO I in oP + Ca (202) 3 — Dé $1(w) = aio In ae +, (208) With (12a,b) the potential differences are Iw) he D a+ D G 2 cosh! SEES Wie) = Aue) — Ante) = Tey (0 “Sir L(w) at — D* =f ™ Bonar (21) Similarly Vw) = $u(w) — dx(w) = 12) in BD (22) “Gt” 2Daal From their definitions, 1 = W.(w)/I,(w) and y = 9 + joc = g(w)/V(w), it follows that the parameters for the shielded-pair line used with its inner conductors in parallel are a Sr Sno k= 4 c= E ale (23a) af — bY/16 basa (230) where ko = 2 In and b = 2D is the distance between the inner conductors. Although these formulas are restricted by (17), so that the distance 2D between the inner conductors must be large compared with their radius a, the limiting case in which the two inner conductors coincide is readily obtained by setting D = 6/2 =0 in the numerator of the logarithm [since this comes from (12a,b)] and setting b = 2D = a, in the denomi- nator [since this comes from (15), in which coincidence is specified by Ru = Rul. The result is the formula for the coaxial line, ‘The internal impedance per unit length of line is obtained approxi- mately by treating the outer conductor as the shield in the coaxial line and each inner conductor as if rotationally symmetrical. ‘Thus (24a) 1+ [pew iti eS = (246) where If the shield is of rectangular cross section, as shown in Fig. 9.3, the following line constants apply when the inner conductors are balanced, ie., have equal and opposite currents and charges:** se Dre, _ Ore ied obey ae 025)See. 10] ‘THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 39 where =) 1 4 sink? (26/2) ke = 2| in ZA tanh (wb /20) » int eosh? (mx /2h) = 7a inh? (wb/2h) mat | sinh? Gnmw/2h), (26) These formulas are good approximations provided the radius a of the inner conductors is small compared with the distance b between them and small compared with the distance from the wire to any side of the surrounding surface. Usually it is not necessary to go beyond m = 1 in the sum in (26) to obtain an adequate approximation. As a numerical example with a = 0.0625 in, h = 0.4 in, b = 0.5 in. and w = 0.9 in., (26) converges rapidly to give ko = 2.564. ‘The internal impedance 2 = ré + jzé “yrs oO fk per unit length is the internal imped- kK ba ance of the two-wire line, as given in - r] See. 4, Eq. (34), plus a small contribu- tion z{ from losses in the shield. Since this carries only small equal and oppo- ite currents on the two sides—the total axial current is zero—the value of small. In the absence of an accurate formula, and since the shield is assumed far from the wires as compared with their radius, a reason- able estimate is obtained if the value of z{ in (108) for a circular shield is used, if its circumference 2raz is made equal to the perimeter 2wh of the rectangle. That is, (10b) is used with a, = wh/x. If the line with rectangular shield is driven with the two inner con- ductors in parallel, so that the entire return current is in the shield, the line constants defined in (25) apply with Fic, 9.3. Two-wire line in shield of rectangular cross section. * 14 cosh? (xb/2h) fo = 2] in 2Ae0th 8/26) 4 SY gyn yy — > Si Gere /2A) oops na 1 cosh? (rb/2h) mt cosh? (narw/2h), For a = 0.0625 in., h = 0.4 in., b = 0.5 in., and w = 0.9 in., (27) gives ky = 0.677, At high frequencies the internal impedance per unit length is given by (24a), with z{ as in (240) and L+j [uso oa 8 Tha V2. lee 10. Three-wire Polyphase Line; Three-phase Cable. A three- wire polyphase transmission line (Fig. 10.1) consists of three identical Parallel wires each of radius a, located at the vertices of an equilateral40 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY {Chap. I triangle of side b. It is assumed that the conditions Bla<1 |gbR«K1 > at q@ are satisfied. O The line is driven so that the currents in all three wires are equal in magnitude and havea progressive phase change of 120° from one wire to the next. Specifically Tug = pln = Pils @) where roan pat ptpti=0 @) E ‘The vector potential at a point Qi(z,y,z) Fun 101, Theewire line with 0” the surface of conductor 1 is the super- ‘conductors at the vertices of an Position of contributions maintained by all equilateral triangle. three currents. Thus 1 on eis nen] Aulw) = 7 i [sw + b(w') ee + In(w') a (4) where Re=Vw—-wylt@ R=Vw-wP th (6) ‘With (2) and (3) the expression for the vector potential may be simplified. Thus Aww) = gy L Tsw!yP,(o,w") do! 6) Similarly $1(w) Pt [ 7 gu(w')P,(w,w’) dw’ ” where Pies) oe Se a eames ‘The corresponding expressions for the potentials on conductors 2 and 3 are As(w) = pAr(w) xv) = por(w) (9) Aa(w) = p*Ars(w) a(t) = p*oa(w) (10) ‘The potential differences between conductors 1 and 2 are b dey Wiz(w) = Ars(w) — Aa) = f. Ty,(ww') Pi (w,w') dw’ (11a) Vat) = du(w) — 4460) = LEP” gcwrPsceose) du) ‘The potential differences between the outer pairs of conductors differ only in substituting for 1 — p the factors p(1 — p) or p? — 1 if referred to the current J; in conductor 1. They are like (11a,b) if the subscripts are cyclically permuted so that Ws(w) is referred to Iz and Wax(w) to Is. ‘A comparison of (11a,b) with Sec. 4, Eqs. (10a,)), shows that theSec. 10] ‘THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 41 integrals are the same, It follows that their approximate evaluation must be the same, subject to the conditions imposed in (1). ‘Thus War(w) = 31 — p)ha(w)lt (12) Viste) = 401 ~ patwy #2 = ga ~ p) Tal 3) where It and y are as in Sec. 4, Eq. (80a,b). Subject to 68> a}, the internal impedance per unit length z{ of each conductor is the same as in Sec. 4, Eq. (84). Since (12) and (13) differ from Sec. 4, Eqs. (28) and (29), only in the constant factor }(1 — p), the final differential equa- tions can differ from Sec. 4, Eqs. (37a,b), only in this factor. Thus the differential equations for the voltage and current in one pair of a three- conductor three-phase line are 4 ‘Q, ~ 20 < 30 — pene (4a) “D - H@ _ 2 uve) (1B) where h, is the current in conductor 1 and Vi2(2) is the potential difference be- tween conductors 1 and 2. The equa- tions for the other two phasesare obtained from (14a,b) by cyclical permutation of the subscripts. ‘The factor 3(1 — 9) is unchanged. Thus the problem of the three-phase line is reduced to that of three two-wire lines with currents related ac- J cording to (2) and (3). ‘ The analysis is readily extended to the F4- 10.2. Shielded three-wire line . oe with image conductors equivalent n-phase n-wire transmission line and the Wi" image | single-phase multiwire transmission line.** The Three-phase Cable. If the three-phase line in Fig. 10.1 is placed symmétrically in a cylindrical metal shield of radius az, the constants for each phase may be obtained by the method used in Sec. 9. This consists in imagining the conducting shield removed and three image conductors so arranged that the resultant potential from the six con- ductors vanishes on a circle of radius az corresponding to the circumfer- ence of the metal shield. ‘The currents and charges in the six conductors shown in Fig. 10.2 are related as follows: Ty = pl, = pl, (15a) where es P+ p+ (156) I h=-h h=-h (15e) The distance between each conductor and its image is b,. Tt is given42 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY {Chap. I by the equivalent of Sec. 9, Eq. (2), in Fig. 10.2: a} — a} — D* 4-8-4 as) Subject to the inequalities a}—D?>a} >a? (17a) which are implied in the solution as explained in Sec. 9, 2g-D yao? a7) ‘The distance d from the image of one conductor to one of the other two conductors is d= VOTED FDOT = (BY + D+ oH ‘The last step follows with (176). ‘The potential functions at w on the surface of conductor 1 within the shield are equal to the potentials calculated from the currents and charges in the three actual conductors and in the three image conductors without the shield. Thus, with (15c), Aste) = au f eo (Ge _ cn) + taco) + tacw't (GP-S) ae’ ay V@=wF FG B=VE—wWFTE oy Vw wth R= Vea wee In (20) a; is the radius of each conductor; b is the axial distance between pairs of conductors; b, is the distance between each conductor and its imege, as given in (17b); and d is the distance from the image of one conductor to one of the other conductors. With (15a,b,¢) the vector potential (19) may be expressed as follows: Anew) = By iA Mw!) Palo!) di! (212) Similarly the scalar potential at w on conductor 1 is exw) = a f au!) Pale.) doo! (218) it gtsn\ (etin giant ee eee ( Re ~ zr) - (e Te (22) "The corresponding expressions for the potentials on conductors 2 and 3 are Assw) = pAutw) wv) = paxtw) (23a) Assi) = p*A(0s) — u(t) = pC) (238)See. 11] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 43, The potential differences between conductors 1 and 2 at the coordi- nate w are Wiz(w) = Au(w) — An(s L T,(w')Pa(w,w') dw' (24a) ° g(w')Pa(w,w') dio! (24) Via(w) = $1(w) — $2(w) = ‘These integrals are like those in (11a,b). They differ only in the occur- rence of Pa(w,w’) in place of P,(w,w'). Hence the differential equations that are satisfied by Vi2(z) and J,(z) must be the same as (14a,b) but with different values of the line constants. By imposing the condition [Ga2|? K 1 (25) and carrying out the analysis as in Sec. 4, the following results are obtained: “rawr « [ACB Ce) bd = 2m (26) where d and 6, are as in (17b) and (18). The line constants are uy bd _ os _ Bernon 9" inGdah) oT mein) 2 The internal impedance per unit length of each conductor zi = ri + ja is the same as in See. 4, Eq. (34), subject to (17a). II, The Coaxial Cage Transmission Line. A conventional coaxial line is shown in Fig. 11.1a, If its outer cylinder is replaced by 2N'¢ con- ductors each of radius a; symmetrically arranged in a circle of radius b / Or RAP (a) (b) Fro. 11.1, (a) Coaxial line; co = 2re/{In (b/a)] and If = (ln (b/a)]/2n». (6) Cage line with the same values of co and 15. around the central conductor, as in Fig. 11.1, and these 2N’ conductors are operated in parallel, the properties of the coaxial line in Fig. 11.1a may be closely approximated. In order to demonstrate this, let it be + An odd number 2N + 1 conductors may also be used to form the cage. For simplicity only the even numbers are considered here. ale44 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. I assumed as usual that the following inequalities are satisfied: b> a? bt >> at @ ‘The parameters of the cage transmission line may be quickly deter- mined. Thus the scalar potential at the coordinate w on the surface of the central conductor (number 0), when this has a positive charge g(w’) per unit length at w’, whereas each of the 2V outer conductors (num- bered from 1 to 2N) has a charge —g(w’)/2N, is given by ite oe) = 2 ao (Ze 9 F(a am ® where Ra = V/(w’ — ww)? + R= y @) It is assumed that the following inequality is satisfied \gbl?<« 1 (4) The potential on the surface of each of the 2N outer conductors at the same axial coordinate w is the same as the potential :(w) on conductor 1. This is ¥ w+ $2" [Ghent *3z)-d]~ 0 at where Ry = 4} (w! — wv)? + | sin } 25i> b? (8 — at? (12) as is shown later. Alternative exponential forms of (7) and (11) which are convenient in the analysis of junctions (Chap. V) are obtained by redefining the arbi- trary constants. ‘They are WV, (Ae? + Ber) (13) VY, (de — Ber’) (14) where A = By \/¥, and B = B, VY... The coefficients By and By in (7) and (11) are dimensionally voltages; the squares of the coefficients in (13) and (14) are dimensionally powers.50 TANSMISSION-LINE. THEORY (Chap. I 44, Interpretation of the Solution for the Voltage along an Infinite Line. Phase and Group Velocities.""** Before proceeding to evaluate B, and By (Sec. 13) in terms of general terminal conditions, it is instruc- tive to apply the solutions obtained to an infinite line, Consider a sec- tion of line beginning at z = 0 and ending at z = s = ©. For physical reasons the voltage must vanish at infinity, so that By = 0. It follows directly from Sec. 13, Eq. (7), that Bs is the voltage Vo at z = 0. Thus sa Vea LZ, = Voetotion ) Upon multiplying through by and selecting the real part as the solu- tion that is consistent with an assumed time dependence of the form v9 = Vo cos wt = Re (Vee) (2) which refers the phase to the maximum value of the instantaneous volt- age, one obtains v, = Veen cos (wt — Be) @) ‘This solution has an instructive physical interpretation. Note that the voltage », is a function of two independent variables, the time ¢ and the distance z along the wire. At any fixed point z = 2: the voltage varies periodically. ‘The potential is positive on one wire and negative on the other for one half period. ‘The amplitude increases from zero to a maximum of Vse-*" and decreases to zero in a sinusoidal fashion. "Then the polarity reverses, and the voltage decreases to an equal negative extreme, then again is reduced to zero. The phase lag of the voltage at z behind the voltage at z = 0 is Bz. The cycle repeats. ‘The same variation occurs at every other point 2, but the amplitude Voe-™ is dif- ferent, and the phase lags that at 2 = 0 by Bz. The amplitude decreases exponentially, and the phase lag increases linearly with distance from 2=0. If, instead of concentrating on a fixed point along the line, the ampli- tude all along the line is examined at a given instant, such as ¢ = 0, then v, = Vor cos Bz (4a) At a quarter period later ¢ = 7/4, and 0, = Ver sin Be (4b) ‘At a half period later t = 7/2, and v, = —Voe-** cos Bz (4c) ‘The three distributions are shown in Fig. 14.1. It appears that, as time passes, any given curve, such as the one for t = 0, moves down the line with amplitude confined between the limiting curves Vse~** and — Vee. In order to investigate this motion, let attention be focused specifically on the phase of the voltage. This is given by the argument of theSec. 14] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 51 trigonometric function in (8), that is, by wt — 62. Points and times in the distribution of voltage along the semi-infinite line at which the volt~ ages are all in the same phase relative to a complete cycle are defined by ¥ = wt — Be = constant. Because the trigonometric function is multi- valued, the current at all points for which the constant differs by 2nx \ “ \ Js Yee" singe - t oe sin Voer**c0s Bz ~Vge"**c0s Bz Fia. 14.1. Instantaneous distribution of voltage along a semi-infinite line at instants differing by a quarter period, (where n is any integer) is in the same phase as at z = 0. The currents at different times and different points along the line which differ in phase by integral multiples of 2r are defined by ot — 62 = Va = Yo—2nr = 0 =0,1,2,3,... @) where yo is a constant. The significance of this relation may be dis- closed, first, by determining the distances z from the input end at which the voltages differ instantaneously in phase by integral multiples of 2x and, secondly, by discovering what happens to these particular phases as time passes. If an arbitrary instant f; is selected, the points charac- terized by voltages in the phases Yo — 2nm are given by (coli — Yo + 2nm) n=0,1,2,3,... (6) ‘The distance between two points that are adjacent and differ in phase by 2r is Emit — En = a mis any integer @ ‘This distance is the same for all choices of m. It is a fundamental con- stant of the distribution called the wavelength on the line, It is assigned52 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY {Chap. I the symbol \. Thus, by definition, or B At any given instant of time, voltages along the semi-infinite line which differ in phase by 2x are separated by distances \. With the points in the distribution which are characterized by voltages in a particular phase at a given instant determined, it remains to discover how the distance z locating any one such point varies in time. This is determined by differentiating both sides of (5) with respect to time. In this way A= (8) 0 ©) or, defining vp, X% — 3B (10) In (10) , is the velocity with which a given phase travels along the line. In general, it has nothing to do with the propagation of energy, but only with the arrangement of phases; it applies only to periodic phenomena of infinite duration. Thus each particular phase of the voltage travels along the infinite line in the positive z direction with a constant velocity #/8. This phenomenon, in which points of constant phase are separated by constant distances \ and all travel with a constant velocity v,, is called traveling or running waves of constant phase. Depending on whether attention is directed to a constant phase of voltage or of current, the traveling waves are called voliage waves or current waves. Any particular phase reaching a distance z at a selected instant must have started at z = Oatan earlier time given by t — z/v, or by ¢ — Bz/w. Consequently a voltage in this particular phase always lags the voltage at z = 0 at any time ¢ by a phase angle #z. Similarly, if the distribution of voltage is viewed along the entire line at any single instant, as in Fig. 14.1, the phase lag-at any distance z from 0 (with respect to the voltage at. z = 0 at that instant) is 8z. Thus # measures the phase angle characteristic of a given semi-infinite line per unit of its length. It is the phase constant (per unit length) of the (infinite) line. It is measured in radians per meter if z is in meters. ‘The amplitude of voltage in a particular phase is reduced according to e-, Thus a measures the natural logarithm of the ratio of amplitudes |V0/Ve| per unit length: Vo} V.I It is the attenuation constant (per unit length) of the (infinite) line. In the relation (11) it is measured in nepers per meter if z is in meters. ay 1 a = FlogSec. 14] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 53 If the phase constant 8 is a linear function of the frequency, so that ® B=5 (12) where v is a constant independent of frequency, then the phase velocity », is the same for all frequencies and equal to the constant v introduced in (12). Under all other conditions the phase velocity is different for each frequency, so that, for any complex voltage that is a superposition of components of several frequencies, these components have different phase velocities. In this case dispersion is said to occur. ‘The significance of dispersion may be determined by investigating the propagation along a semi-infinite transmission line of a voltage that is modulated in amplitude at an angular frequency 6 which is small com- pared with w. In this case the input voltage at 2 = 0 may be written as follows: v9 = Voll + m cos (dwt)] cos wt (13) where m is the degree of modulation (usually multiplied by 100 and expressed in percent). Using a standard trigonometric formula, this may be rewritten in the following equivalent form: t= Vo [coset + F cos (w + dude + 3 cos (wo — on (14) Since the differential equation is linear, the voltage at any point z along the infinite line is the superposition of the voltages due to the three components. Thus = Vo ew 008 (al — Be) + F eH C05 [(w + du)t — (B + 46)2] + F eo 08 [(w — bu)t — (8 — zn (15) Here a + da and 8 + 66 are, respectively, the attenuation constants and phase constants associated with the angular frequencies w + Su. If dw is sufficiently small, it may be assumed that the changes in @ and g for an increase in w by dw are the same in magnitude as the changes when w is decreased by d@. Since is very small along a highly conducting line, as will be shown later, 6a is a small quantity of higher order and of negligible importance in determining the nature of the propagation, at jeast over moderate distances. Specifically e** + 1 + daz. The last term is negligible if z is not so great that it is not possible to require daz K 1. If baa is neglected, the result is v= Vor {oos (wt — 62) + z cos [(w + du)t — (8 + 88)z] + F cos [(w — bu)t — (8 — 4)z]} (16)54 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I This may be transformed trigonometrically, without further approxi- mation, into the following expression: Voe-[1 + m cos (dw t — 68 z)] cos (wt — Bz) (17) ‘The transmission properties of the modulation-amplitude are contained in the function in square brackets. Thus a particular phase in the modulation amplitude is defined by ba t — 68 2 = const. (18) Differentiation with respect to ¢ yields the velocity of propagation (dz/dt) of a particular phase of the modulation amplitude along the infinite line. It is the group velocity and is defined by = & = s (194) In the limit as de approaches zero, = Jim = e (198) An alternative form is obtained using a = 5(6v,) = 48 + 8 dup: v=o be Se (196) Since 6 = 2x/4, (d/d8) = —X(d/dd), so that 2 =, — 92 (194) If there is no dispersion, w is linearly related to 8 by the simple relation B = w/», with » a constant independent of frequency. In this case (19) together with (12) gives =v =r,» (20) ‘When there is no dispersion, a modulation envelope travels along the transmission line at the same velocity as any particular phase of the carrier frequency. If there is dispersion, the velocity of the modulation envelope is different from that of the carrier. If the phase velocity decreases with frequency so that dv,/d@ is negative, a particular phase travels more slowly at a higher frequency than at a lower one, the dis- persion is normal, and the group velocity is less than the phase velocity. If the phase velocity increases with frequency so that. dv,/dg is positive, a particular phase travels more rapidly at higher than at lower fro- quencies, the dispersion is anomalous, and the group velocity is greater than the phase velocity. It is easily shown that the group velocity is also approximately the velocity of propagation of a pulse that can be represented in terms of aSec. 14] THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 55 narrow frequency band between wy + dw and w» — du, with 6w very small. If this is true, Bo + 88 = Bo & Bo — 08 @1) If a voltage pulse composed of a narrow band of frequencies (note that this does not mean a narrow, sharp pulse that is composed of a very wide band of frequencies) is impressed across an infinite line at 2 = 0, the instantaneous complex value of the resulting voltage pulse on the line can be represented in terms of a complex Fourier integral of the form w= [C veesren ag = [8 yejetons ds my Here V(6) is an amplitude function of the frequency, and hence of 8, which has any shape in the interval Bo — 58 to 6s + 68 but is vanishingly small outside this interval. (A pulse of any shape can be expressed by a Fourier integral with limits extending from — © to -+e. A sharp pulse contains such a wide range of frequencies, each with a different phase velocity, that the shape of the pulse changes so rapidly that a group velocity cannot be defined.) Because it is required that 6 be small, the angular velocity « in the integrand can be expanded as a function of 6 in a rapidly converging Taylor series about the value at Bo, and higher- power terms may be neglected: (8) = e-6, + (&).. @-B)+-°- (23) ot pe [ot 42) (6 — a |e~ Go +8 Boe = wot — Boz + (8 — Bo) [(%) os 2| (24) Hence v= {L288 vige-rtearnien dp) ert = Vietoe-b (25) The complex amplitude V, varies with z only in the phase factor in the exponential. Accordingly’ V. is the same at all points and times where (26) Differentiating with respect to the time gives the velocity dz ‘dea’ @), ww of the pulse. It is the same as the velocity of a modulation envelope (19). The concept of group velocity is precise only in the limit as é approaches zero. If 6a is sufficiently small, the shape of the modulation envelope56 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I or of a pulse remains approximately the same over a long distance, so that a velocity of propagation is meaningful. ‘This is the group velocity. The velocity of a signal whose transmission can be described in terms of electromagnetic waves is, in general, neither the phase velocity nor the group velocity, but a third velocity called the signal velocity. ‘This is not easy to define in general terms, but it corresponds physically to the arrival of a sufficiently large amplitude to activate a receiver. In the case of normal and small dispersion the signal velocity practically coin- cides with the group velocity, and both are smaller than 3 X 10* m/sec. When dispersion is normal but large, both group and signal velocities are difficult to define at all; when dispersion is anomalous, complicated conditions may obtain in which the group velocity may differ greatly from the signal velocity. In no case does the signal velocity exceed 3 X 10* m/sec; in all practical cases it is less. ‘Theoretically an infinitely sensitive receiver should detect the extremely small amplitude of the so-called first precursor of a signal. This always has the so-called wave- front velocity, 3 X 10° m/sec for all media. PROBLEMS 1. Derive the transmission-line equations using the general method of See. 2 as applied to an equivalent 11 section. 2, Determine the line constants of a four-wire line in which adjacent pairs (instead of diagonal pairs) of conductors are in parallel. The four conductors are at the comers of a square. 3. Determine the line constants of a four-wire line with conductors arranged at the corners of a rectangle of sides } and c. ‘The diagonal pairs of conductors are in parallel. 4. The inner conductor of « horizontal coaxial slotted line is supported along its entire length by a wedge of polystyrene (¢, = 2.6) which occupies a 9° angle. If the wavelength measured along the line is 1.2 m, what would it be if the line were com- pletely air-filled? 5. A trough line consists of a single wire placed symmetrically parallel to the intersecting line of two highly conducting planes. ‘The planes meet at an angle of 60°; ‘the conductor lies on the bisector of this angle at a perpendicular distance 6/2 from each plane. Determine the line constants, indicating what approximations are made. (Hint: Use images.) 6. A shielded cable consists of four copper conductors at the corners of a square in an iron shield of circular cross section. ‘The dielectric is polystyrene. (a) Determine the line constants l*, ¢, and 8 for each of the possible phase-sequence voltages, assuming simple image theory to apply. (@) What are the associated phase velocities? Obtain an estimate of their numeri- cal magnitudes by assuming the copper conductors to be No. 10 wire, the square to have a side of 1 om, and the shield to have an inner diameter of 3 om. 7. A transmission line terminated at = in its characteristic impedance of 800 ohms is driven at z = O by a generator with an emf of 100 volts and an impedance of 8 + j40 ohms. ‘The frequency is 100 Me/sec. The attenuation constant of the line is 0.01 neper/m. Determine the instantaneous current and voltage at ¢ = 10 m if the instant t = 0 is chosen to occur when the emf has a positive maximum in its cycle.‘THE INFINITELY LONG LINE 57 8 The amplitude of the current in a long line terminated in its characteristic impedance is measured at two points 100 m apart. ‘The ratio of the two values is 1.1. (@) What is the attenuation constant of the line in nepers per meter? (6) What is the ratio of potential differences between the two conductors of the line at two points 20m apart? 9. Plot curves showing |f,/h slong an infinite line (or a line terminated in Z,) for which « = 10-* neper/m over a range from 2 = 0 to z = 2d and over a second range from 2 = 100A to 2 = 102. Sketch the instantaneous current i,/I> at ¢ = 0 in both ranges with 6 = 3.14 radians/m (fo = I» cos wt). 40. A flexible two-wire line consists of two copper wires joined by a thin ribbon of dielectric. ‘The characteristic impedance of the line is specified by the manufacturer. ‘The wire size and spacing can be determined by direct measurement. How could the wavelength along this line be determined by calculation for a specified frequency?CHAPTER II THE TERMINATED LINE 1. Potential Functions for a Terminated Line.**°" Since the differ- ential equations derived in Chap. I are valid strictly only for an infinitely long line, it is not correct to assume that they may be applied to a line of finite length with arbitrary impedances as the load at z = s and in series with the generator at z= 0. In order to investigate this problem of termination, let the infinitely long line to the right of the line-load plane RSE Unload < Fic, 1.1. Line with termination, at 2 = be replaced by a terminal impedance of finite length. Since there is a different specific solution for each type of termination, it is not possible to derive general results valid for all terminations and types of lines. However, the general method of analysis can be formulated in terms of the configuration of conductors shown in Fig. 1.1, consisting of a symmetrical coil terminating a two-wire line with identical conductors 58Sec. 1] THE TERMINATED LINE 59 of radius a and spaced a distance b that satisfies the inequality b> at @) This restriction may be removed as in Chap. I, Sec. 7. ‘As a first step in the derivation of a generalized set of differential equations, let the scalar and vector potential differences be evaluated. Let w = s — z be measured from the line-load plane along the trans- mission line to the ring Qz(w,2,y) on the surface of each conductor where the potentials are evaluated. Similarly let w’ be the distance from the line-load plane to the elements dw’ at Qi,(w’,z,y) at opposite points on the axes of the conductors. ‘The coordinate u is measured from the line- load plane along each side of the symmetrical load. The distance from this plane w = 0, u = 0 to the elements du’ at Qj, on the axes of the conductors forming the load is u’. In order that the line may be balanced with equal and opposite cur- rents and charges on the two conductors, that is, qu(w) = —Gu(w) Ta (w) = —Taex(w) @) (where the subscript L stands for line), it is necessary that the line and the load be symmetrical, so that $2(w) = —di(w) — Ane(w) = —An(w) @) Since ¢2(w) and $:(w) must be calculated from all the charges and Az,(w) and A,,(w) from all the 2 components of current in both the line and the load, this latter must be symmetrical in its geometry and in its charges and currents. ‘Thus it is necessary that Gar(u) = ~Girl) Taur(u) = —Iur(u) (4) where the subscript 7’ stands for termination. If the halves of the load are geometrical images of each other in the plane y = 0 (Fig. 1.1), but with signs of charges and directions of currents opposite to those of mirror images, all conditions (2) to (4) are satisfied. However, there are configurations of conductors in which the halves are not geometrical images in the plane y = 0 which also satisfy these conditions. With (2) the potential differences between opposite points on the equi- potential surfaces of the two conductors are Viw) = $1(w) — o2(w) = 21(w) (5a) W.(w) = Au(w) — Aae(w) = 241.(w) (5b) Note that these are the sums of the potential differences calculated from the charges and currents in the line (subscript Z) and in the termination (subscript 7): Vw) = Vi(w) + Vow) — We(w) = Wer (w) + Wer(w) (6)60 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY {Chap. IT Equations (5) are true if subscripts L or Tare added to each potential. ‘The evaluation of the potential differences at w on the line may be carried out as in Chap. I, See. 4, but with finite limits. Thus Wate) = ab ff talwrP (ww) de i) Wala) = sh fi Oe. (1) Vi(w) = nae : q1(w') Pr (w,w') de’ (8a) Votw) = abe [anew rPotoe) a @) Ma (9a) tC a (0b) and where Re=VwrwP Fe R= Vw wr re (8c) ‘The distances Rir and Rer are measured from the symmetrically placed elements of integration du’ in the termination to the point Q,(w,z,y) on one of the conductors of the line where the potentials are calculated, as shown in Fig. 1.1. The half distance around the contour of the termi- nation is sr. It is assumed that the length ¢ of the line is sufficiently great so that the direct coupling between the generator and the load is negligible. It follows that it is sufficient to determine the potential dif- ferences far from the generator end of the line. By interchanging z and w the results so obtained apply to the part of the line far from the load end. In order to evaluate the potential differences in (7) and (8), the charges and currents at w’ on the line and at w’ in the termination are expanded in Taylor series, as in Chap. I, Sec. 4. ‘The distributions of current and charge are continuous at the line-load junctions, so that qu (w! + 0) = gr (u’ > 0) (10a) Tx, (w! + 0) = Tur (u’ > 0) (106) With dl,/ds + jwq = 0, the following expansions are obtained (as in Chap. I, Sec. 4) for gu(w") and I.:(w’) (only the first two terms are retaine dole’) = que) + (uf — w) 3 Ma (11a) E(w!) = Lr) + (wo! — w)jeogr(w) (1b) : aru) = que) — (wl + w) 2 hale) ae url’) * Taleo) ~ (wl + whiage(e) (a) Note that Tir(u') = Tar(u’) cos Yu’) (12)See. 1] THE TERMINATED LINE 61 where Iyr(w’) is the total axial current at w’ in the termination and y(w’) is the angle between the direction of the current at w’ and the z axis. ‘The substitution of (11) and (12) in (7a,b) and (8a,b) and the subse- quent substitution of the integrals so obtained in (6) give i Gooqu(w)[Rx(w) + Rir(w)] wate) = 3B, {atu + Rera] + Sate) helo (13) 1 dla(w) aw? (As(w) + Hip] VO) = one 1 (pce + Ke(w)) +2 ne srhereswith wie er ieh totu) =f" Pucow’ aut = ff — ) aur Ja Pate > Ra Be Be eee ener aes = sinh! 2 — sinh" + sink! 2 — sinb-t? 45a) For a sufficiently long line (s? >> b?) this reduces to felt) & ho(w) & sinh! 2 — sinh? + In 2 aonb wtvorsee 5 en ae (158) hal a ee (tel or(w) = f Pr(wju’) cos vu") du’ = if (a:- z) cos ¥(w’) du’ (150) Ue TE - Vara - hys(w) = 8 f "GW 4 w)Pr(w.u!) cos yw’) du’ =-9 f (w+ w) (at - a) cos vw!) du’ (sn Rr(v) = —6 ft (ul + w)Pr(wyu!) du’ = -0[" coe ee 7) (159) Note that the integrals (15a) and (15e) are the same as those in Chap. I, Sec. 4, Eqs. (16) and (17), except that the limits of integration are from 0 tos instead of from — = to +2. Just as in Chap. I, Sec. 4, it is a62 ‘TTRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I good approximation to replace the first integrals in (15a) and (15e) by the second integrals, provided the following restriction is imposed on the separation b of the two conductors of the line: [ob]? <4 (16) It is not clear whether this restriction is sufficient to make the second integrals in (15¢), (15d), (15f), and (15g) good approximations of the first integrals. ‘The approximation actually made is | CG Ren a) av’ |>| If (Pir — Fen) du! (17a) citer 1 citer — | where Fee Ps (a7) In order to evaluate (17a) it is necessary to specify the geometry of the termination. As a convenient and rather general case, let all signifi- cant contributions to the potential differences on the line come from cur- rents and charges in the straight parts of the termination in Fig. 1.1 which make a constant angle y with the line. This means that these parts are relatively longer compared with the line spacing b than in Fig. 1.1. Note that Rir and Ryr may be expressed as follows: Rr = Vw + w' cos vy)? + sin VF (18a) Ry (w+ w’ cos y)* + (u’ sin y + 6)? (18) Significant contributions to both integrals in (17a) are obtained only from values of the integrand for which Rir and Rar are of the order of magni- tude of small multiples of b and therefore sufficiently small to satisfy the inequalities [eRir|? ~ |Bb]* bt (25) the general expressions (23a) and (23b) for the potential differences are well approximated by the simple formulas derived in Chap. I, Sec. 4, for the infinite line. With (25) it follows that kw) =k = 22 — (uw) ¥0 (26a) Kyr(to) +0 ex(w) =O — Rar(ww) = 0 (266) bo(w) = 0 p(w) = 0 p(w) =0 (26c) iw) = 1 Vi(w) = VG) (26d) aw) =1 Wau(w) = We) (26)64 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. II so that Wee) = Plate) — Vow) =H gata) @7) where £-% (28) It follows that, whereas the general equations (23a) and (23b) for the potential differences must be used within distances of the termination at both ends which do not satisfy (25), the simple formulas for the infinite line are good approximations at sufficient distances from the ends. Although the discussion in this section was carried out specifically for a two-wire line, it applies with slight modification in detail to the other types of line analyzed in Chap. I. In all cases there is a region near each termination where the more general equations (23a,b) must be used, whereas the formulas for the infinite line apply at distances from the termination which are large compared with the cross-sectional dimensions of the particular type of line. For each type of line the appropriate formula for k» must be used in the general expressions (28) for the parame- ters lt and y = g + jue. For example, in the case of the coaxial line, ko(w) = ie f ( S z dw! ae" (29) where, as in Chap. I, Sec. 6, with r = a1, Ri=Vw-wl ta k=Vw-wl +s (30a) tia = Val + Gf — Baia, co3 (08) ‘The integration with respect to w' may be carried out directly to give ka(u) = 21n St ~ fom wt vel tab (31) wha ae The integral in (31) has not been evaluated, but a satisfactory approxi- mation is readily obtained. Since az is always greater, and usually much greater, than a; and since the expression under the radical in the numer- ator ranges between /w? -F (a2 — ai)* and »/w? + (a2 + ai);, it is clear that a reasonable mean value is obtained simply by neglecting the terms in a, in the numerator. The result is Kolo) © 21n St — n WV FH (32) a wt Vu + at This is soen to be the sme in form as (15b) for the two-wire line, with a; occurring in place of b and a: in place of a. 2. Generalized Differential Equations." ‘The derivation of the differential equations for the scalar and vector potential differences whichSee. 2] THE TERMINATED LINE 65 are valid at all points along a terminated line parallels the derivation in Chap. I, Sec. 4, for the infinite line but proceeds from more general forms of the fundamental relations. Specifically, since the vector potential at points on the conductors of the line near its terminations may have components perpendicular to the line as well as parallel to it, the general relation [Chap. I, Sec. 3, Eq. (8b)] must be used. ‘The desired general equation of continuity for the vector potential at points on the conductors of the line is aA, ox oA, oz aA, 0 +o + Ge tite =0 @ where A., 4,, and A, are the components of the total vector potential due to the currents I.z in the line and such of the components Ipr, Iyr, and Ir as may exist in the terminations; @ is the total scalar potential due to charges gz in the line and charges gr in the terminations. As pointed out in Chap. I, Sec. 3, it is possible to replace the single equation (1) by several equations involving related components of the potentials such as the following: Ap= Asn Ay = Ayr Ap = Aas + Aer (2a) b= orto (2b) Az, and 6: are computed at points on the line from currents and charges in the line, whereas Azr, Ayr, A:r, and $7 are computed at the same points on the line from currents and charges in the termination. ‘These com- ponents satisfy the following equations: Aer Ayr | Or, By ae toy toe tag Or = 0 (Ba) OA, BP Se tik a =0 (3b) Tf the scalar and axial vector potential differences are introduced as defined in See. 1, Eqs. (5a,b), it follows from (3b) and with 3/aw = —a/az that aW.1(w) Ow @) Similarly, proceeding from the general equation (Chap. I, Sec. 4, Eq. (6a)], viz., jy 7 Esl) + jod.(w) 6) and making use of the defining relation (Chap. I, See. 4, Eq. (38a)] for the internal impedance per unit length zj, namely, E1.(w) = Iis(w)zi, the following equation is obtained directly: av(w) by 7 Bleu(w) + joW.(w) 6)66 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. IT where V(w) and W,(w) are the total potential differences between points on the two conductors of the line at a distance w from the load-line junction, f,,(1) = J.1(w) is the total current in conductor 1 at this dis- tance, and z' = zi + zi. The desired differential equations may now be obtained from (4) and (5) with Sec. 1, Eqs. (23a) and (23b). As a first step, let gi(w) be eliminated from See. 1, Eq. (23a), using Sec. 1, Eq. (23b), to give 6 Since the last term on the right in (7) is a small correction term, it is satisfactory to assume in evaluating its order of magnitude that the current satisfies the uncorrected equation. Moreover, since the term includes the small factor p(w)p'(w), it is negligible beyond a distance 10b from each end of the line. In the short lengths 10b the small internal impedance of the conductors may be ignored, and j@ substituted for y. Under these conditions the differential equation for the current as obtained in Chap. I, See. 13, is x(a) Wea) = 10) [ hace + LOOM) _ 2h) » OC) ay Jar t O'lx(w) = 0 (8) If (8) is used in (7), the first and last terms on the right become Li(w)[1 + pw)p’w)] @) ‘However, since both p(w) and p'(w) are correction terms, their product is of higher order and may be neglected. Hence, subject to the condition \p(w)p"(w)| <1 (10) the z component of the vector potential difference in (7) may be expressed. as follows: wn) = 1 [tate + MOrwcorece | an W.(w), as given in (11), may be substituted in (6) to obtain tat) a gh [OMCe) —sehoUGP yoy | 2 where the impedance per unit length has been defined as follows: 2(w) = zi + jol*(w) (13) ‘The correetion factor on the right may be expressed in terms of the ratios a,(w) and ,(w) defined in Sec. 1, Eqs. (24a,b), if use is made of See. 1, ‘Eqs. (22). The result Jute) = zh [HO Fig [M2 + eacperonpcoy] a ow is the generalized first-order equation for the current,Sec. 2] THE TERMINATED LINE 67 ‘The second-order equation for the voltage is obtained by differentiating (6) with respect to w and using (4) together with W.(w) = Waste + Wer(w) ‘Thus PV) + geyi(u) = 2 tathalw) + joWen(w)] (15) In this relation W.r(w) is the axial component of the vector potential difference due to currents in the termination only, and the term with # as a factor takes account of the very small internal impedance of the line. Thus the entire term on the right in (15) is a first-order correction in which the vector potential difference and the current may be repre~ sented by their leading terms, i.e., by their uncorrected values. Thus with Sec. 1, Eq. (23a), the leading ‘part of the total vector potential is W.(w) = Leu(w)le(w) = Ler(w)llg(w) + U(w)] (16) Evidently, since W.(w) = W.1(w) + W.r(w), it follows that. Wer(w) = Lr(w)l$(w) ay) If (17) is substituted in the brackets in (15) and J.r(w) is replaced by its leading term from (14), viz., Taw) = (1s) the right side of (15) becomes 8 [z(w) — julg(w) Vw [ Z(w) ” ow | (19) Since the principal part of z(w) is juls(w), the leading term in (19) is (20) The substitution of (20) in (15) and a subsequent rearrangement of terms give the following homogeneous equation: aV(w) dw? 2(w) Jols(w) However, with Sec. 1, Eqs. (22) and (248), it follows that ae BV i(w) = 0 (21) fe yo) (22) GelgQw) ~~ baw) Henee, since with Sec. 1, Eq. (246), Vi(w)/#1(w) = V(w), the final equa- tion for the total voltage along the line is Vw) aw? (w)V(w) = 0 (23)68 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. IL ‘The generalized propagation constant *(w) is defined by (wv) = z(w)y(w) = 20(w)yo(w)ar(w) ®r(w) (24) When there is no inductive coupling between the termination and the line, ax(w) = 1; when there is no capacitive coupling, @(w) = 1. At distances that satisfy the condition w? > b*, tw) = 8 = zy = @ F jal’) (g + jue) (25) where It, g, and c are the parameters of the infinite line. Thus, when wt is large compared with 6%, the generalized Eq. (23) reduces to the equation for the infinite line given by Chap. I, Sec. 18, Eq. (6). 3. Terminal Zones; Coupling and End Effects."°** Tt was shown in the preceding section that the scalar potential difference between the two conductors of a transmission line of finite length and terminated in arbi- trary impedances is given in first approximation by the equation PHO) _ Qu)¥(u) = 0 ® where (wo) = z(u)y(w) = aul) ma (w)a(w)yete) ®) ‘The current in one of the conductors of the balanced line, in which 1,(w) = —I,(w) = —1(w), is obtained from the scalar potential differ- ence by differentiation: 10) = hy [BO + spenacoescwr | ® Since the variable w, in general, occurs in *(w) in an intricate manner, Eg. (1) cannot be solved by conventional methods that apply to equa- tions with constant coefficients. Indeed, since y(w) is a different func- tion of w for each type of termination and line, a general solution of (1) is not possible. Fortunately, precise knowledge about the distribution of current or voltage in the parts of a line near its ends at w = 0 and 2 = 8 — w = 0, which are excluded by the conditions = (s— vw)? > oF (4) is relatively unimportant, provided the currents and voltages are known. accurately everywhere else. Although at all points outside the terminal zones of length wD bv? ds10b d@*=010 © currents and voltages satisfy the simple equations @V(w) ar — VCH) = 0 ay (6) @ L(w)Sec. 3] THE TERMINATED LINE 69 for which general solutions are given in Chap. I, Sec. 13, the currents and voltages actually cannot be determined from (6) and (7) without speci- fying boundary conditions; and these necessarily involve the terminal zones, in which (1), (2), and (3) but not (6) and (7) are valid. ‘The differences between the general Eqs. (1) and (3) for the terminated line and the special Eqs. (6) and (7) for the infinite line and for points sufficiently far from the ends of a finite line may be summarized under (uw) sinh sinh! Wn ae A Lae Lata 00 i 6 001 wo ¢ fy 2 4 16 18 20 0.001 0 oles Fic, 3.1. The functions ko(w), kx(w)/8b, and po(w) /6b for a two-wire line in a perfect dielectric. the headings of coupling between the load and the line and transmission- line end effects. 1. Coupling between the load and the line may be inductive owing to a nonvanishing z component of current in the load, so that Wer(w) and 1g(w) are not zero and a;(w) differs from unity; it may be capacitive, so that Vr(w) and cr(w) in yz(w) are not zero and @,(w) differs from unity. The absence of inductive coupling is defined by a;(w) = 1; the absenee of capacitive coupling is defined by ,(w) = 1. It is signifieant to note that the infinite line is not characterized by an absence of either inductive or capacitive coupling between the sections of line on each side of an arbitrary line-load junction at w = 0. On the contrary, in the infinite line the following relations are true: Few) + Ig(w) = (8a) ¥ei(w) + yew) = yt = G + joc)! (8b)70 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. IL so that the constancy of I¢ and y presupposes inductive and capacitive coupling. Note that, at w = 0, 450) = 1500) = al* —_yr(0) = yo(0) = 2y (9a) whereas, when w? > b? or w— &, (oe) =0 le) = yr() = 0 yl) =y (90) It is clear that the equations for the infinite line do not apply even to a section of line with an open end, since [2y| 2 |y(w)| = lyl- 2. Transmission-line end effects arise from the fact. that, even when there is no capacitive or inductive coupling between the line and the load or when there is no load, the general qs. (1) and (3) do not both reduce to the simple forms (6) and (7). wre 7577 This is readily seen by setting wo | {2+ (wv) =1 aw) = 1 (10) £ | = aq +. || It follows that : af 2(w) = zo(w) 1 ye) = yw) OD / $v) = slw)yte) = 29 = 34 a2) so that = YO) _ sey) = 0 (18) Relw).obms 8 8 8 3 3ses CTT which is the infinite-line equation. On the other hand, 7 1 15| Iw) = aw) ES ioe [2 + opew)%ew)] 14 Fia. 3.2. The functions 5(w), cow), andy) — Rw) Rw. where pol) = Fiyy 15) Note that it is only the product zo(w)yo(w) which is independent of w, not the functions zo(w) and yo(w) individually. It is due to the fact that Zo(w) is proportional to ko(w) and yo(w) to 1/ko(w) that the product z9(t0)yo(w) is constant. Clearly the ratio 2o(w)/yo(w) is not independent of w, and it is this ratio which defines the generalized characteristic impedance Z.(w). ‘The functions ko(w), ki(w), and po(w) are shown in Fig. 3.1 for an open two-wire line as a function of the normalized distance w/b from the loadSeo. 4] THE TERMINATED LINE 7 at w= 0. The line spacing is b. ‘The inductance and capacitance per unit length, 75(w) and co(w), are shown in Fig. 3.2 together with the ratio R.(w) = 15(w)/co(w) + zo(w)/yo(w). A perfect dielectric is assumed. ‘The section of line near a termination (or other discontinuity) in which the equations of the infinite lines, (6) and (7), are not valid is called a terminal zone, and the conditions that are responsible for the differences between (1) and (3), on the one hand, and (6) and (7), on the other, are called terminal-zone effects. 4, Equivalent Uniform Line with Terminal-zone Network. Since the principal purpose of an analytical solution of the transmission-line prob- lem is to predetermine quantities actually measured on a transmission line, it is necessary to formulate an approximate solution of the general equations (See. 3, Eqs. (1) and (3)] for practical use. ‘Transmission-line measurements usually involve the distributions of current and voltage on parts of the line which are outside the terminal zones. ‘The data so obtained are then interpreted using conventional formulas derived from the solutions of the special equations [Sec. 3, Eqs. (6) and (7)] for an infinite line, Although these equations are valid in the region of measure- ment, their range of application does not extend to the actual termi- nations. Hence this procedure is correct only if a sufficiently long section of line is included as a part of the termination, so that 2 = # may not be the actual end of the smooth line. If the conventional formulas are assumed (incorrectly) to apply to the terminal zones and z = s or w = s—2z=0 coincides with the actual junction of the line with an impedance, the impedance apparently terminating the line includes the effect of errors made in using incorrect parameters and formulas in the terminal zone. This apparent terminal impedance Zyq at z = $ (or Zoa at z = 0) is not, in general, the ratio of the actual scalar potential difference across, to the current entering, the terminating impedance. Since Zs. involves the properties of the transmission line, the same impedance may have quite different apparent impedances when connected as a load to different transmission lines. Merely by varying the spacing of the line or by changing the relative orientation of line and termination, the appar- ent terminal impedance of a given load may be altered. For reasons similar to those which make it impossible to have the uni- form properties of a long transmission line continue to its junction with an arbitrary impedance, it is also impossible to define for an arbitrary circuit element an impedance that is independent of the circuit to which it is connected. ‘The degree of coupling of such an element to the adja- cent parts of the circuit, e.g., the transmission line, varies with the con- figuration of conductors and the separation of its terminals; it may be large or almost zero in specially designed arrangements. Only when the separation of the terminals of a circuit element is vanishingly small, as when it is driven by a fictitious extensionless generator or by an equally72 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY {Chap. II fictitious transmission line with zero spacing, is it possible to define a self-impedance Z, that is an independent characteristic of the cireuit ele- ment, which then becomes a complete self-contained cireuit. It is possible to separate formally the circuit properties of, and the coupling between, two parts of a single complete circuit into two self- impedances and a mutual impedance.’ Except when the distribution of current is greatly affected by the mutual term, the self-impedance of the load differs negligibly from its ideal self-impedance when isolated and driven by a potential difference maintained across its terminals by a fictitious source. ‘This is true of the coupling between a transmission line and its load. Accordingly the transmission line may be analyzed as if it had a physically extensionless load, and the load may be analyzed as if it were driven by a fictitious source that maintains the required 4s) potential difference V(s) = :(s) — Ais) x(s) atits terminals, as shown in Fig. V(s)=$,(8)—$2(5) 4.1, provided separate accountis taken a of the actual coupling between them. ~hs)=1s)+ ei ai This may be done approximately by means of a suitable equivalent net- work that represents the coupling as if lumped at the junction instead of distributed over short distances near it. By concentrating couplingeffects and transmission-line end effects in such a network of lumped elements, the actual terminal zone in which z(w) and y(w) are functions of position may be replaced by a fictitious section of Tine in which the variable parameters z(w) and y(w) are replaced by the constants z and y of the infinite line. ‘That is, the length of the terminal zone is reduced from, say, d = 10b to zero, and its distributed cireuit properties, insofar as they depart from those of a smooth line, are con- centrated as a lumped network at the line-load junction. If this is done, the impedance terminating the hypothetical completely uniform line with constant parameters everywhere is the apparent terminal impedance Zre. ‘This consists of the impedance of the idealized isolated load Z, = V(s)/I(s), as obtained from Fig. 4.1, in combination with the lumped network that takes account of all terminal-zone effects. This is shown schematically in Fig. 4.2, where the lumped elements of the terminal-zone network consist of a series impedance Zr = juLr and a shunt admittance Yr = jwCr. ‘The lumped elements Zr and Yr are to compensate for the difference between the series impedance and shunt admittance of the actual terminal zone and the series impedance and shunt admittance of a section of line which is equal to the terminal zone in length but has the line constants Fra. 4.1, Typical termination for two- ‘wire line.Sec. 5] THE TERMINATED LINE 73 of an infinite line. ‘These elements are defined as follows: zy = f * (z(w) — 2] dw = jw f * (e(w) — Ue] dw = joLr a) Yr = £ [y(w) — y) dw = jo is [e(w) — ¢] dw = joCr (2) where y(w) is as defined in See. 1, Eq. (2c), z(w) as in See. 2, Eq. (13), and z and y as in Sec. 2, Eq. (25). Alternatively, with Sec. 2, Eqs. (24a,c), a Lr= f [s(w)ax(w) — 14] dw sO) Cr= ff * Ico(w)41(w) — e] dw (4) With Zr in series and Yr in parallel with the load (the order is not important), 2(w) and y(w) in the terminal zone may be replaced by Conventional tine Terminal zone 4 Za Load oo t (coupling to line) ‘Constant parameters zy, yp | Varlable parameters parameters Fo-%0 4 aw), y uo oouping to load Al Conventional line A Rly (no coupling atta toline) B Constant parameters 29,99 no coupling to load Fra. 4.2. Actual and equivalent transmission lines. ‘The configuration of conductors between A and B is the same in both cases. z and y, so that y(w) becomes y and p(w) = 0. It follows that the infinite-line equations [Sec. 3, Eqs. (6) and (7)] apply to the entire line ‘including terminal zones, provided an appropriate lumped network is con nected between the line and each termination, as shown in Fig. 4.2, so that the apparent terminating impedances are Z,. at z = s and Zo, at 2=0. The constants of this network must be evaluated separately for each impedance and each type of line. Specific application of this general theory to impedances of various types terminating different lines and to the junction of two different lines is made in later sections. For use in the next section it has been shown that the constants of integration in the general solution of the infinite-line equations [Sec. 3, Eqs. (6) and (7)] may be applied to finite lines, provided the boundary conditions are expressed in terms of apparent terminal impedances Z,, which include an appropriate terminal-zone network. 5. Evaluation of Constants in Terms of Boundary Conditions; Expo- nential Solution for a Terminated Line." If the transmission line is of finite length extending from z = 0 to z = s, as shown in Fig. 5.1a, the flr4 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. IL ends of the conductors may be connected by terminal impedances of the most general sort, provided a section of transmission line which is long compared with the line spacing b is included as a part of each termination. ‘The impedances are defined by Z= aS @ where V is the complex potential difference across the terminals of the impedance and J is the complex current in each terminal. The currents 7 (eo) ans Fra, 5.1, Terminated transmission lines. (a) Terminations at both ends inctude sections of transmission line. (6) Lumped terminations. (c) Lumped terminations with single generator at center of Zo. in the two terminals are equal and opposite. At the input end the imped- ance is Z) = Ro +JXo; at the output end it is Z,= R,+jX.. The generator at the input end is separated into two identical parts each maintaining an emf 3V%. ‘The superscript ¢ is to distinguish an externally applied potential difference or emf from a voltage drop. ‘The subscript 0 locates the generators at z = 0. For lines in which b is so small that it makes no significant difference in any length of line whether it is increased or decreased by an amount b, terminal-zone effects are negligible, and the cireuit of Fig, 5.1b or Fig. 5.lc is adequate with Zi, ~ Z, and Zo ~ Zo. Tf the current at all points in Z, is the same as J, (the current into or out of the line), the halves of the generator may be combined into a single generator connected in series with Zy in any desired manner. If the current amplitude is not constant throughout Zo, the generator must be in two parts in order to have theSee. 5] ‘THE TERMINATED LINE xy currents equal and in reversed directions at opposite points along the two conductors or at the center of a symmetrical structure. If the termination does not include a section of line and the spacing is not so small that terminal-zone effects are negligible, these may be assumed to be localized in a network of lumped elements at the junction of the line and the termination, as explained in the preceding section. By combining such a corrective network with the ideal impedance Zo or Z, of the impedance when isolated, the apparent impedance Zee or Ze is obtained. This is the fictitious impedance that would have to terminate the line if uniform conditions prevailed to the ends and the same cur rents and voltages existed everywhere on the line as on the actual line with the actual termination except in the terminal zones. ‘The apparent impedance is that determined from measurements made on the line if solu- tions of the conventional or uniform-line equations are used in the reduc- tion of the data. In the following it is assumed for simplicity in the notation that terminal-zone effects are negligible, so that Z) and Z, are the termi- nations. The solution obtained may be applied to general terminations merely by adding the additional subscript @ to Z) and Z, and to other functions introduced to describe the terminations. The boundary conditions for the circuit of Fig. 5.1 are For z = 0, Vo For z = 8, ve = Ve — hd (2a) LZ, (2b) If the appropriate currents and voltages as given by the first equation in Chap. I, Sec. 13, Eq. (7), and by Chap. I, See. 18, Eq, (11), namely, V, = Bret" + Bue and I. = 4 (—Byer* + Bye), are substituted in (2), two equations are obtained for evaluating the arbitrary constants B, and Br in terms of the impedances Z) and Z, and the parameters of the line. ‘These equations are Bi + By +2 (B+ By (3) 2 (Ben + Bue) = Byer + Bye (4) Rearranging and collecting terms lead to nt BDZ. 6) (6)76 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. II For convenience let the following shorthand be introduced in (5) and (6): @) ‘The complex factors Pp and I’, are called coefficients of reflection of voltage, Their properties are studied in later sections. Solving (5) and (6) for B, and Bs, using (7), gives Zz. Tet B= VO7 77 1— Tre i. a z. B= VizT7I (9) Upon substituting these in Chap. I, See. 13, Eqs. (7) and (11), the final solutions in exponential form are obtained. They are ViZ. et + Pere ve + Zo (10) qu) ‘The solutions for a terminated line must, of course, reduce to the solu- tions previously obtained in Chap. I, Sec. 14, Eq. (1), for a semi-infinite line of length s that is allowed to increase without limit, If s— ® in (10) and (11), all exponential terms involving ¢ vanish, provided y has a positive real part, so that Ve = LZ. = et = Veer (12) Z+h ‘This is like Chap. I, Sec. 14, Eq. (1); note that (a3) It is significant that solutions like (12) and (13) are obtained for a line terminated so that Z=2, or 0 (4) ‘The input current given in (12) is like that in a simple circuit con- sisting of Z, in series with Z), It follows that an infinitely long trans- mission line, or a line of any length terminated in Z, = Z., behaves at its input terminals like an impedance Z.. Since Z, is defined by Chap. I, Sec. 13, Eq. (10a), entirely in terms of parameters characteristic of the line itself, Z. is properly called the characteristic impedance of the line. Note that a transmission line behaves like an impedance Z, only if it is infinitely long or if it is terminated in Z,. Its behavior under other cir- cumstances is quite different.Sec. 6] THE TERMINATED LINE 7 6. Infinite-series Form of the Exponential Solution." ‘The exponen- tial solutions of Sec. 5, Eqs. (10) and (11), may be modified either in order to make them more convenient mathematically or in order to facili- tate their interpretation in terms of a physical picture or model. In this section Sec. 5, Eq. (10), is rearranged into a form with a physical interpre- tation that helps to explain the significance of the parameters appearing in the solution. From the analytical point of view such a physical inter- pretation is not required. On the other hand, pictures or models that illuminate a mathematical formula in terms of a readily visualized physi- cal mechanism often serve a valuable purpose. ‘A physically fundamental transformation of Sec. 5, Eq. (10), is derived below, The procedure is contrary to that usually followed by the mathe- matician, who prefers a closed formula to a physical interpretation, in that Sec. 5, Eq. (10), is expanded into an infinite series by dividing the numerator by the denominator. ‘The result is Va pes eget eptacene te Dol eee hike eecea 4+ Pierro fo] (1) In order to obtain the instantaneous real voltage, (1) must be multiplied by e and the real part selected. ‘This is ner {e-** cos (wt — Bz + ®) + Dema@-9 cos [ot — 6(28 — z) +s + 2] + Tol ye-#@+*® cos [wt — 8(28 + 2) + Yo tv. + 8] + Tol 2e-*4*-9 C08 [wt — B(48 — 2) + Yo + 2 + 4] + TGP Jer-e+9 cos [wt — B(48 + z) + 2ho + 2 +B] % fet) : Z (2) Note that niz-|nez|” @) and To=Te LT, = Tei (4) The velocity of a constant phase associated with each term in (2) is obtained by setting the phase equal to a constant and differentiating with respect to the time. ‘Thus For the first term, d dz Get Aete) = const, Fo = Fao For the second term, rr r——C ere ai : spt For the third term, dz S (et — 286 — Be + Yo + Ys +4) = const aia78 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. IE For the fourth, sixth, and every even-numbered term dz/dt = —vp; for the fifth, seventh, and every odd-numbered term dz/dt = vp. ‘The series (2) may be interpreted term by term. By allowing the length s of the line to increase without limit, the first term in (2) is seen to be the complete solution for the instantaneous voltage at z on a sem?- infinite line. It is like Chap. T, See. 14, Eq. (1), for a generator imped- ‘ance Zp instead of zero. ‘The interpretation previously applied to Sec. 4, Eq. (1), may be applied to the first term in (2). That is, the contribu- tion to the instantaneous voltage at z by the first term may be visual- ized as a voltage wave traveling in the positive z direction with a constant phase velocity »,, the amplitude of the voltage diminishing exponentially with z. At the instant ¢ when the wave reaches the point z, the wave will have traveled a total distance z from z = 0 toz = z. The voltage meas- ured at z at the particular instant t may be regarded as having originated at the generator at an appropriate earlier time f, such that f) = t — z/v». ‘Thus the first term may be assumed to represent a voltage wave that has traveled only the distance z from the generator to the point of observation at z with velocity v». It involves a phase lag §z and a decrease in ampli- tude by the factor e~* compared with the point z = 0 at the same instant. ‘The instantaneous voltage at z on the terminated line at time t: differs from that which would be observed at the same point and time if the line were infinite by the addition of the series of terms following the first one in (2). Viewed in the same light as the first term, the second term in (2) represents a voltage wave moving in the negative z direction which has traveled the distance 2s — z, starting at the generator, proceeding to the end of the line at z = s, and returning to the point z, where it arrives simultaneously with the first wave. The entire distance was traversed with the constant phase velocity v,. The starting time was — (28 — 2)/v» + ¥./o. Tt involves a phase lag 6(2s— 2) and a decrease in amplitude by the factor e~*°-?, In addition, there is an amplitude factor T, = |(Z, — Z)/(Z-+ Z| and a phase shift wh = arg (Z, — Z)/(Z, + Z.). Since T, and y, depend only on the terminal impedance Z, at z = s and on the parameter of the line Z., it is plausible to regard P, = Tye’ as a coefficient of reflection charac izing the impedance Z, when this terminates the line of characte: impedance Z.. The effect of the coefficient is to change the amplitude of an incident voltage wave by a factor I, and the phase by y, after the wave reaches Z, and before it starts back as a reflected wave. ‘The third term in (2) may be interpreted in an analogous manner as a wave which originated at the generator at a time t; — (28 + 2) + ¥./o + Yo/w and which has traveled to the end at z = s, back to the generator at z = 0, and finally back to the point of observation at z, where it arrives simultaneously with the other waves. When it arrives at z, it is traveling in the positive z direction along with the first wave. In transit the waveSee. 7] THE TERMINATED LINE 70 is attenuated by the factor e~**+») due to the line, by a factor I’, due to reflection at Z,, and by a factor Ty due to reflection at Zs. Similarly there is a phase lag 6(2s + z) due to the distance traversed on the line and phase shifts y, and yo due to reflection at Z, and Zp. All succeeding terms in (2) may be interpreted in a manner analogous to that used to describe the first three terms. Each is a contribution to the voltage at the point z from components that started at z = 0 sufficiently early to travel as a constant phase back and forth along the line. In so doing the amplitude suffers a continuous exponential attenuation, and the phase suffers a linearly increasing lag with respect to the voltage at z = 0. In successive reflections at each of the two ends, discontinuous changes in amplitude and phase supplement the effect of the line, The number of reflections at each end is given by the powers to which the factors I'y and T,, which characterize a single reflection, are raised. The total distance traveled by each component is given by the factor of « in the exponents or of 8 in the phases. In terms of this physically attractive picture the instantaneous potential difference at any point along a terminated trans- mission line is the resultant of all the contributions reaching that point simultaneously from both directions after an infinity of successive reflec- tions at the ends. The terminated line is thus seen to play the role of an infinite line folded back and forth upon itself, with discontinuities at intervals equal to the actual length and with the potential difference in these folded parts actually superimposed and combined algebraically into a single value. This interpretation can be obtained directly from the complex series (1) if it is recalled that a complex quantity involves a real amplitude and a phase shift. That is, once the relationship between complex and real instantaneous values is understood, the essential points may be deter- mined directly from the complex form without the real solution. A sit Jar expansion and interpretation may be used for the current. 7. Incident- and Reflected-wave Form of the Exponential Solution." An alternative physical picture of the exponential solution of the trans- mission-line equations is often given in a form of Sec. 5, Eqs. (10) and (11), in which the voltage V, across, and the current I, = V,/Z, in, the terminal impedance Z, are introduced explicitly. The voltage V, is obtained by setting z = s in Sec. 5, Eq. (10). Itis a) (2)80 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. IL If (1) and (2) are substituted in Sec. 5, Eqs. (10) and (11), and the notation wes—z @) is introduced, the following expressions are obtained: ve I It is clear that the distribution of current depends on w = s — z, not on zalone. The instantaneous real solutions are obtained by multiplying by e and selecting the real parts. ‘Thus, for example, the first equation in (4) leads to v, I+F v, = Re Vie" = [ee cos (wt + Bw + #) + Tem cos (wt — Bw + %e + %)] (6) where is given by % _|_h i+r |ier oi? (a ‘This instantaneous voltage consists of two terms. The phase velocity for the first term is obtained by holding the total phase constant and differentiating with respect to time. This gives do _ de fe a ® The phase velocity of the second term is i) sede eue oleae ~ ara BT 2 Accordingly the first term in (6) represents a voltage wave traveling in the positive 2 direction with phase velocity », whereas the second term represents a wave traveling in the negative z direction with the same velocity. Thus the instantaneous voltage v, at z may be con- sidered to be made up of the sum of a composite wave of amplitude |V./(. + T,)|e traveling toward Z, and a composite wave of amplitude |v./(. + 1.)|Te-@ traveling in the opposite direction. The two waves differ in phase by ¥, — 26w, corresponding to a greater distance of travel for the second wave from the point z to Z, and back to z, with a phase shift ¥. on reflection at Z,. The wave traveling toward Z, is the incident wave; that traveling away from Z, is the reflected wave. Note that these composite waves have amplitudes that are intricate functions of the parameters of the line and of both Zp and Z,, and that the origin of the waves is not readily determined by noting the distance traveled.Sec. 7] ‘HE TERMINATED LINE 81 ‘The relative phases and amplitudes of the two terms in (4) and (5) are represented in the following alternative formulas: Ve ore —tawgi(~280) Vem pel + Le terelt ey (10) Bem Ze Ry ll — Rates 40] ay A plot of the bracket in (10) is given with « = 0 in Fig. 7.1 and with a #0 in Fig. 7.2. It is instructive to compare the representation of the exponential solu- tion [Sec. 5, Eq. (10)], first, by an infinite series as in See. 6, Eq. (1) and, secondly, by two terms as in (6). The first representation expresses the instantaneous solution as an infinite sum of individually simple terms, each of which is the solution of an infinite line folded back upon itself. Fig, 7.1. The function 1 + re~# with Fra. 7.2. The function 1 + Te~*vei#l0 Pr =Te¥; T = 0.6, y = 30°, with P = Tet; P= 0.6, y = 30°. ‘The contribution by each term is made up of the fraction of the gener- ator voltage impressed across the line, modified in amplitude and phase by the effect of the over-all distance traversed on the line and by the coefficient of reflection at each end appearing as a factor for each reflection. ‘The instantaneous voltage at a given point is thus made up of the simul- taneously arriving contributions of an infinite number of simple waves that have traveled back and forth, with one term for each possible distance between generator and point of determination. ‘The second representation, using only two composite terms, in effect separates the infinite series into two parts, as determined by the direction of motion at the point z at the instant /. ‘Thus all terms representing waves traveling in the positive z direction are combined into a single composite wave, the incident wave; similarly all terms representing waves traveling in the negative z direction are combined into a composite reflected wave. Each of the two resulting composite waves is the super- position of an infinite number of simple waves traveling simultaneously in one direction. As such, its amplitude involves the effect of all reflec~ tions at both ends and does not represent each by an explicit factor.82 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. II ‘The regrouping of an infinite number of simple waves into two composite ones traveling in opposite directions is analytically convenient, but not physically so transparent as the superposition of an infinite number of simple waves. In particular, the physical interpretation of the coef- ficients of reflection Fy and I’, as modifying amplitude and phase at each reflection is lost, and the expressions (4) and (5) may as well be made more symmetrical by substituting for I, the equivalent (2, — Z.)/ (2, +2). The resulting expressions are = HAZ, + Ze + $l ae — Ze" (12) Lem gyi Zt Bem — me (2, - Ze = + (a+ 2) — fe (es - Zoe (13) Some writers introduce the notation elr+¥; L=E+E (14) Vi= az, He (2s + Ze = F(Z, + Ze" Ve= y (Z, — Ze = 31(Z, — Ze Then V, = Vrere + Vee-; I, = Iter + pe y, where (18) p= da. +o an +2) * 2Z.°" “ 22.2," 1 =- fe e-m=- fy %-D a9) Clearly, from (10) and (11), with jy = 2yw = j26w, for y = j8 and « = 0, Vrere(L + |Pul) ee (1 — |Pul) vy I Similarly, at jy = 2yw + jr, = Vier(1 — [rW)) Fee + [Pl The terms with the wnecnttn + are for waves traveling in the positive z direction; those with the superscript — are for waves traveling in the negative z direction. eal at ¥ — 28 = 0, 2x, 4x, ... (20) at y — 280 =, 3n,... (21)See. 8] THE TERMINATED LINE 83 Note that: (22) so that the reflection coefficient 1°, may be interpreted as measuring the ratio of the reflected composite voltage wave at Z, divided by the com- posite incident wave. Similarly I” measures the ratio of current waves. No such interpretation for Fy exists. In fact, Mo does not appear in any of the formulas for two composite waves, being contained exclusively in the amplitudes V, and I,. 8 Hyperbolic Forms of the Solution.’ The formulas [Sec. 5, Eqs. (10) and (11)] for the complex current and voltage may be expressed in terms of hyperbolic functions of complex argument by eliminating the reflection factors Mp and I, using Sec. 5, Eq. (7), and the definitions of the hyperbolic sine and cosine, viz., cosh u = 3(e% + e~¥) sinh u = 3(e% — e™) (ly where u stands for ys in the denominators and y(s — 2) in the numerators of See. 5, Eqs. (10) and (11). With w = s — z the two expressions are (2, cosh yw + Z, sinh yw) @) 1 = 48 (Z, sinh yw + Z, cosh 0) (3) where DD = (23 + 202,) sinh ys + Z(Zi + Z,) cosh ys @) ‘These expressions explicitly involve y and Z, and the terminal imped- ances Zy and Z,; coefficients of reflection do not appear. ‘These alterna- tive forms of See. 5, Eqs. (10) and (11), do not lend themselves to a simple physical interpretation in terms of successive reflections. ‘The formulas (2) and (3) are too complicated to permit a direct visuali- zation or simple graphical representation of the distributions of current, and voltage. Very considerable simplification from. this point of view may be achieved by employing the same method previously used in simplifying the exponential forms, viz., introducing the voltage and current at 2 = s explicitly. ‘These are Do LZ, L= D> (6) If these values are substituted in (2) and (3) to eliminate V4/D, the follow- ing formulas are easily deduced: V. = V. cosh yw + 1,2, sinh yw ) L = } sinh yw + I, cosh yw (2)st ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. II It is clear from (6) and (7) that the voltage and current at any point along a terminated transmission line depend on the distance w = s — z of the point from the output end. Furthermore they may be expressed entirely in terms of the voltage across, and the current into, the terminal impedance Z,. The formulas (2) and (3) are in this way divided into two somewhat simpler parts. The first permits the investigation of the current and voltage at any point along the line in terms of the current and voltage at the output end. The second, as given in (5), involves the current and the voltage at the output end. It is evidently possible to express Eqs. (6) and (7) in the following general form: V, = AV, + BL (8a) I, = CV, + DI, (8b) where, in the present case of a transmission line, the four complex coef- ficients A, B, C, and D have the following values: A=D = cosh yw (9a) B= ZC = Z. sinh yw (9b) Since (8a) and (85) are, in fact, the general equations of a four-terminal network of lumped elements, it is clear that. a section of line between the points z and s must be equivalent to such a four-terminal network. This is considered in Chap. III, Sec. 12. ‘An alternative method of simplifying (2) and (8) involves the definition of functions to replace the reflection coefficients M and T. It will be recalled that My and I’, may be interpreted as a measure of the change in amplitude and the shift in phase produced by each of an infinite number of successive reflections of a wave traveling back and forth along the line. ‘The new functions that are to replace I and I’, are defined to be a measure of the complete or over-all attenuation and phase shift by the termi- nation, that is, to represent as a single effect the composite effect of all the reflections at a given termination. The complex terminal function @ and its real and imaginary parts, the terminal attenuation function p and the terminal phase function ®, are defined as follows: 0 = p + j= cath Z (10) ‘A subscript 0 or s is used on 6, p, &, and Z to distinguish between the terminations at z = 0 and z = s. An alternative definition that is at times more convenient is of =p 5H = tank Z ay It is readily verified that the primed functions differ from the unprimedSec. 8] HE TERMINATED LINE 85 by the following very simple relation: yeh o=049 (12) ‘The proof reduces to showing that coth (9 + j#) = tanh (> +58 + *) (13) Using Dwight formulas 655.3 and 655.4, this is accomplished at once. It is shown later that © is measured from zero current into the termi- nation and #’ from zero voltage across the termination. If the numerator and denominator of (2) are divided by Z? and Z0/Z. and Z,/Z, are replaced, respectively, by coth 60 and coth @,, according to (10) it follows that coth @, cosh yw + sinh yw ¥. = V5 (= coth 6: coth 6) sinh ys + (coth 6» + cath) cosh ye “4 With suitable rearrangements this expression becomes _. yz Sinh @o cosh (yw + 0,) Ye = Vo sinh (re + 0 + 6) (15) ae 1, = Vosinh Oo sinh (qw + 6) fia If the definition (11) is used instead of (10), the corresponding formulas are ye Cosh 0% gi Ye = Ve" sinh (rs + 0; + 8) we _ Vs cosh 05 cosh (yw + 0) as i = 2 sinh (rs + 0) + 0) ) These relations may be referred to voltage and current at z = Thus, from (15) and (16), 7 inh @» cosh 0, Ce +8) as) 1, = Vs__sinh oo sinh 0, (20) Z. sinh (x3 + 0 + 0) For convenience let the modified terminal voltage V, be defined as follows: sinh Oe Vs ade VS can Gs + 0) 6) ~ ~ Gosh 6, ~ sinh 6, Using (21), (15) and (16) reduce to ¥. = ¥, cosh (yw + 0,) = p cosh [(aw + p,) + j(Bw + &)] (22) 1, = 7 sinh (yw + 0,) = 7 sinh [(aw + p,) + j(6w + &)] (23) v= (21)86 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. IE These formulas reduce to a particularly simple form for a lossless with a dissipationless load, for which, as is discussed later in detail, line r= Z=R (24) . i(% + 2) (25) V, = V, cos (Gw + &,) = —D, sin (Bw + 4) (26) LR, = V, sin (6w + &,) = V, cos (Bw + 2) (27) For a short-circuited line for which Z, = 0, 4, = 1/2, and © = 0 (as shown in Sec. 15), V, = —V, sin Bw (28) LR, = ¥, cos Bw (29) For an open-circuited line for which Z, = ©, ® = 0, and ® = —x/2 (as shown in See. 15), V, = ¥, cos Bw (30) LR. = V, sin Bw (31) The completely hyperbolic forms of the solution, as expressed in (22) and (23), represent the general case with arbitrary terminations in a form analogous to the simple form of a lossless line. The phase function &, represents the over-all phase shift due to the termination at z = s (as distinguished from the phase shift per reflection given by the argument of the reflection coefficient). The function &» plays a similar part for the termination at z = 0. ‘The part played by the attenuation functions py and p, is best seen in the amplitude factor J, in (21). Thus in Rev sinh (po + 0) _ ° sinh [as + po + p. + (88 + Fo + 4,)] po and p, contribute the over-all attenuation due to the terminations in the same manner as as contributes the over-all attenuation due to the line. 9. Instantaneous Values of the Hyperbolic Solutions. ‘The instanta- neous voltage and current are obtained by multiplying the respective complex quantities bye and taking the real parts. For this purpose it is necessary to express the complex quantities in polar form, which, in turn, involves the polar forms of complex hyperbolic functions. These are (32) sinh (u + jv) = S = Se (1) cosh (u + ju) = C = Ce 2) where S = Vi(cosh 2u sinh? u + sin? v (3) C = Vi(cosh 2u + cos 2v) = sinh? u + cos? o @ tan v o = tan (5) tanh u ¢ = tan“ (tan » tanh x) ()Sec. 9] THE TERMINATED LINE 87 With this notation Sec. 8, Eqs. (15) and (16), become = ye Selo 7p SoC piertereod ¥, = Vga = V5 oe @ 1, = Vi SoSe _ Vi So8e piiertererto @) °" ES Ze Se sinh 0» = sinh (po + 3) (9) sinh (yw + 6,) = sinh [aw + p, + j(Bw + %,)] sinh (Aw + jFe) (10) Ceci = cosh (rw + 0,) = cosh [aw + ps +5(8w + #)} cosh (Aw + JPe) an) sinh (75 ++ 8 + 0,) = sinh [as + po + pr +5(88-+ 0+) sinh (A, + JF.) (12) Zest (13) In particular, = Vg 2 = V5 = glen) = Vilered (14) , [eosh 2po — cos 2% _ 1, sinh? po + sin® by = ViNcosh2A,—cos2F, ~ VEN sinh? A, sintF, (15) Fy, oo — 9, = tant ae ~ tant fan Fe (158) The instantaneous real voltage is obtained by multiplying both sides of (7) by e* and taking the real part to correspond to a driving voltage Vé cos wt (16a) Thus 2, = V5 5 08 (ut + 20 — 04 + ee) (168) % For fixed terminations (160) may be interpreted as a single wave of com- posite amplitude and phase. ‘The distribution of voltage along the line at particular instants may be investigated conveniently by setting wt’ = wt + 00 — os, so that = V5 30 Vaiob? A$ cose COS € (cos wt’ — tan é» sin wt’) (16c) With (6) and (11) this may be expressed as follows: mae [cos wt’ — (tanh Ay tan F,) sin ot’) (16d) Rearrangement gives v. = V5S! (cosh Ay 00s Fe cos at — sinh Ay sin Fy sin at’) (17a) Note that, for a matched line with p, = ~, (17a) reduces to the expres- sion previously obtained in Chap. I, See. 14, using the exponential form88 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. II of the solution. Specifically, when p,—> », a, —> 6s + &o + %,, and sinh Ay _, cosh Ay) omer Ss a > eat oate so that = V5Sue-me-* cos (wt — Be + oo ~ 0) (17e) This is the same as Chap. I, Sec. 14, Eq. (3), when py = 0 and y = 7/2. Convenient instants for studying the distribution of voltage in the general case (17a) are wt’ = 0 and wt’ = r/2. At these instants the volt- age distributions are eres wherez = s—w (17) For wt’ = = Tiss cosh Ay cos (Sw + &) (18a) For ot! = ae v, = —©°? sinh Ay sin (8 + ,) (185) Note that these distributions resemble (17c) in that they are sinusoidal, but that the amplitude factors behave quite differently in that they have different values at different instants of time. This means that, for a wave traveling along the line with a finite (but not necessarily constant) velocity, the amplitude varies with location. Note that, for aw Xp., Ay is essentially constant. The phase velocity of the sinusoidal wave with variable amplitude may be determined in the usual manner by selecting an arbitrary phase y and differentiating it with respect to time. Let ae canter erence Haot Ge Then an (19) (Note that a» and o, are constants that do not involve t, z, or.) Intro- ducing the variable w = s — z, (19) may be expressed as follows: deg dw deo dz o+tia-=°’-ma 7° (20) Hence the phase velocity is given by a _ dw 89 Gt dt deg/dw @1) where é» = tan“ [tan (bw + 4,) tanh (aw + p,)] (22) Differentiation using the formula @ ttan-tz) = 1 ado 18" ©) = Tae (23) dee _ d/dw {tan (Bw + ®,) tanh (aw + p,)] dw ~ 1+ tan? (6w + #,) tanh? (aw + p,) (ay givesSec. 9] THE TERMINATED LINE 89 Using the standard relations a 1d tan 2 = seo? ¢ Se (25a) dw @d dz gp tanh 2 = sech? x 7) (256) in (24), the result is dey _ B tanh (aw + p,) sec* (Bw + #,) + a tan (Bw + &,) sech* (aw + px) du “1 + tan? (Bw + &,) tanh? (aw + p,) (26) Accordingly, with 8 = w/v, Fy = Bw + %,, and A, aw + bs, (ae 1+ tan? Fy tanh? Aw (on) "= q./dw —” tanh A, sec* F.. + (a/8) tan F, sech? Ay Note that » is the phase velocity previously obtained for an infinitely long or matched line. Equation (27) can be rearranged by multiplying numer ator and denominator by cosh? A, cos’ Fy. ‘Thus ob, =» G08h! Aw 60s! Fw + sinh? Ay sin? Fy » =" Soh Ay cosh Aw + (a/A) sin Py cos Pe (28) ‘The division of (28) by cosh Aw sinh A, and the introduction of double arguments give (2p) vottace (29) The corresponding expression for the phase velocity of the current is obtained in the same manner. It is coth Ay sin? Fy + tanh Ay cos? Fe _@ sin Fe B sinh 24, (2p) earrons (30) A simple special case is that of a transmission line with low attenuation per unit length (a small) but sufficiently end-loaded so that a sinh 2(aw + p.) In this case the phase velocities for the voltage and current in (29) and (30) are «1 (31) Bsinh 24, (ep)ootace * v(coth Ay cos Fy + tanh Ay sin’ Fe) (82) (Wp)eurrent = v(coth Ay sin? F, + tanh A, cos? F.) (33) On a low-loss line «/8 may be of the order of magnitude of 10-*, so that, (31) is satisfied if sinh 2(aw + p,) 2 0.1. This is true when aw + », =90 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap. I 0.05. If the line is not loaded, so that p, = 0, it follows that @ Fanh tow <1 (34a) or, with a/8 = 10-4, sinh 2aw = 2aw 2 0.1. This is equivalent to 1 5p 510% wR 5D wEBA (348) That is, on a line with low attenuation and no load the phase velocity given by (82) or (33) is accurate only at eight or more wavelengths from the end z = s. Nearer to the end than this (29) or (30) must be used. If the attenuation on the line is small compared with the load, Ay=awtp=p w

rg (6) = Vrg — wile V1 + jhy 19 > wile (6) = 4 Vallg ¥ 70) 19 = ole @ where h, = | eet 79] @) ole — 9 | ‘The second square root in (5) and (6) is in the form used in defining the tabulated functions f(A) and g(h) (Ref. 9, Appendix II). ‘These functions92 TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY (Chap. IL are the real and imaginary parts of the square root. ‘Thus VI + jh = fh) £ jg(h) (9) ‘The functions f(h) and g(h) are defined as follows: S(t) = VEC/T-F I $1) = cosh (5 sinh A) (10) oh) = V3(V/1 + — 1) = sinh (sinh h) (a) For 1, fy =1 gah (12) For > 1, 70) = 01m » fh as) Using the notation of (9) in (5), the result is at iB ajvi 79 (f(x) —Jg(ha)| wile > rg (14) a +98 = Vig = ole (f(y) + jo(hr)] wile < rg (15) For all practical transmission lines «lc is always greater than rg. How- ever, in some attenuators rg may exceed wile. It follows that. a = Vaile = 79 gh) B= Valle — 19 f(h,) wile > rg (16) SIYE=SEI | ecm a = Viyullg + re) wile = rg (18) These formulas are more convenient for computing a and g than are (2) and (8) if tables of f(h) and g(h) functions are available. ‘The condition w'le > rg is satisfied for all practical high-frequency transmission lines. The important ratio a/8 is given by & _ glhy) _ 1 71) tle B~ JQ) Te eter eee (VIF - 1) 79 > wile (195) Clearly Fors <1 wile > rg For - >i wile < rg (20) For @ = 8, alle = 79 It is readily verified that for w%le > rg the following relations are true: as a aly alc, My ee ee eter qei é fel (23) 41, The Characteristic Impedance. The general definition of the characteristic impedance is + IX. a This also may be separated into real and imaginary parts in two ways corresponding to those used for the propagation constant. In the first manner Z, is obtained in polar form, Using tan-!z = x/2 — tan* (1/z), ‘_— Eo Bo Nee In order to make use of the f(h) and g(h) functions, let jute + rg jeee= bo) veers eNOS le re ® = ®) zZ. q@) exp {(j/2)[tan! (g/wc) — tan! (r/ool)]} (2) and define so that (3) is equivalent to (5) ‘The upper sign is to be used when re < lg; the lower sign is to be used when: re > lg, as is usual in all transmission lines immersed in good dielectrics. ‘Then I he) (6) gh.) + Re Ty (2) Here the upper sign applies when re < lg; the lower sign applies when re > lg, as is usual. If rc = lg, X. = O and f(h.) = 1. It is convenient to introduce the quantity ¢,, called the distortion factor, by setting (he) Fh) @)94 ‘TRANSMISSION-LINE THEORY [Chap, II By the same reasoning as was used to establish Sec. 10, Eq. (20), it follows that 4. cannot exceed 1. That is, For he < #: <1 ) In particular, For he S 0.45: g25005 or giX1 (10) In terms of (3) to (5) it follows that 2,= Rl — jo.) to > lg Z=R(L+56.) re < lg (i) 2. = Re re = Ig Z, may be expressed in polar form as follows: Zo= Re V1F Gein Rei for $8 K1 and re > Ig (12) For re < ly the sign of ¢. is changed; for re = ly, ¢ = 0. 12, The Phase and Group Velocities of the Infinite Line. ‘The veloc- ity of particular phase of current or voltage traveling along an infinite line or reflected back and forth along a terminated line is defined in Chap. I, Sec. 14, Eq. (10). It is a Vile = (79/0) flhy) @ ” ViV@ + we? + ail) + alle — rg] Numerical values may be determined using tables of j(h). At suf- ficiently high frequencies hy, as defined by Sec. 10, Eq. (8), becomes small; f(t), as defined by Sec. 10, Eq. (10), approaches unity; and rg/u* in (1) becomes negligible. Hence the upper limit of », as the frequency is increased without limit is Wr gmer & @ ‘The lower limit as w becomes small is obtained most easily using the second form of (1). It is 3) Since v, is not independent of the frequency, there must be dispersion. ‘The group velocity as defined by Chap. I, Sec. 14, Eq. (19a), may be calculated directly from Sec. 10, Eq. (3), or from Sec. 10, Eqs. (16) to (18), using Chap. I, See. 14, Eq. (192) or (196). The expression obtained is intricate, and, in general, the group velocity is not equal to the phase velocity.