Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques

•Introduction
•Instrumentation System
•Errors
•Transducers

•Other Measurements:
flow, level, pressure, temperature, miscellaneous
 Objectives

•Introduction to general elements of

measurement system

•Introduction to general functions of

instruments
 Specific Objective
• Define the basic concept of instrumentation :
– Measurement
– Calibration
– Primary and Secondary Standards
• Describe the measuring system by block diagrams representing:
– Transducer
– Signal Conditioner
– Display unit /recorder
• Explain various classification of the above objective
• Explain instrumentation system performance with reference to :
– Static performance
– Dynamic performance
 Measurement System
A measurement system converts the unknown
quantity under measurement to a numerical unit
using instrument.
Number + measured unit
6.8 kg/(ms)2

Measurement can be defined as a comparison with a

standard therefore calibration and routine
maintenance are prerequisites of accurate
measurement. It is multidiscipline subject which
embraces physics, thermodynamics, mechanics ,
fluids chemistry and electrotechnology.
 Instrument
• 1) Instrumentation is the application of
instruments for monitoring, sensing and
measurement .Some of its applications are
• a) product testing
• b) monitoring- health, safety, costing
• c) control system
• d) R&D
 Instrument
• 2) The advantage of electronic instrument over
mechanical instruments,
• a) rapid response
• b) flexibility of electrical signal –amplitude,
distance
 Calibration
Calibration can be performed in two ways :

• a) varying one input quantity with all

other parameters kept constant and observing the output
b) marking or graduating
• an output scale as the primary quantity is varied through
its full range .

Two type of standards are used primary standard and

secondary standard (working standard)
 Terms
•Measurement - Comparison between an unknown
quantity and a predefined standard

•Measurand- the unknown quantity to be measured

•Instrument - physical device uses to determine

measurand numerically.
 Transducer
• a) Transducer- an element which converts physical
quantity being measured.
• b) Signal conditioner – modify the tranduced signal
in a form that can be recorded.
• c) Recorder /display – to record or display the
measured quantity.
• Example: Bourdon gauge - Bourdon tube
(transducer), Links and gear(Signal conditioner),
Graduated scale and pointer (Display )
 Transducer
•A device to which change or converts
physical quantity in a more easily measurable
quantity

Transducer

(Input) (Output)
Sensor Actuator
 Transducer Basic Requirement
• Ruggedness
• Linearity
• Repeatability
• High Signal to Noise Ratio
• High stability and reliability
 Sensor
A device which senses and detects the physical
quantity of measurand and converts to electrical
form.
Example of sensors:

Mechanical : Bourdon tube pressure meter.

Electrical : Potentiometer

Optical : Photon counter

Chemical : Thermocouples

*All sensors are transducers but not all transducers are sensors
 Actuator
A device that senses and detects the electrical
quantity and converts to physical form.

Example of actuator:
• Valve in heat exchanger system
• Motor speed control where the motor is driving the
conveyor belt
• Magnetic relays that turn on/off of the fans

• Compressor in a control air conditioning

Variable Conversion Element
A device that converts analogue signals to digital
form or vice versa.

Example of converters:

ADC -- Analogue to digital converter

DAC -- Digital to analogue converter

 Variable manipulation element
A device that manipulate the signal presented to it while
preserving the original information.

Example:
Amplifier : Signal gain
Buffer : Unity conversion

Attenuator : Signal reduce

 Signal conditioning
• Operation performed on the signal to bring it to the
desired form.
• Include variable conversion & variable manipulation
element.

Example:
Filter, amplifier, comparator circuit, differential circuit,
ADC, multiplexer and etc.
 Telemetry
Transmission of data from remote sources to
serve specific purposes.

Example:
Remote control, coaxial cable, wireless
transmission, optical fiber cable and etc...
 Data output element
To convey the measured quantity for further action.
Display, recording and control.

Display : Monitor(CRT), LCD

Recording : Magnetic tapes, printer

Control : Data managing system

 Essential Devices
These following devices must always present for all
instruments:
Power supply : To supply power(current)
to instruments
Pulse generator : To generate clock to
digital system

Protection device : To supervise current flow.

Shielding system : To protect instrument

from interfere by external
disturbance.
Function of Instruments & Measurement
Systems
Indicating instruments :Meter display, digital
display
Example: speedometer in car, pressure gauge

Recording function : Data Keeping

Example: Printer, magnetic disc

Controlling function :Temperature, position, speed,

liquid level, flow control.
 Performance Indication
An ideal measuring system is one where the output
signal has a linear relationship with the measurand.
Error is the difference between the indicated value
and the true value. Measuring and control system
performance can be examined in two ways ,
• Static performance –when steady or constant input
signals are applied
• Dynamic performance – when changing input signals
are applied
 Static Performance Indication
• Static sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the
change in output to the corresponding change
in input under static or steady state conditions,
. For a system having static sensitivities of
K1 ,K2,K3 ……, the overall system sensitivity
is given by
 Dynamic Performance Indication
• Dynamic performance of both measuring and control
system is specified by response to certain standard
test inputs
• Step input- abrupt change from one steady value to
another ,will give the transient response
• Ramp input –which varies linearly with time, will
give the ramp response
• Sine wave input – will give the frequency response
Indicated value − True value
x 100%
True value

Error Calculation
• Accuracy can be stated in terms of errors
introduced

• Percentage error = Indicated value – True value . X . 100%

Maximum scale value

Precision is used to specify the closeness of output

result when a measuring device is subjected to the
same input on a number of occasions
 EXAMPLE
A measuring system consist of a transducer , an
amplifier and a recorder, with an individual
sensitivities as follows :
• Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV /0 C
• Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
• Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mm /V
• Determine the overall system sensitivity
• K= K1 x K2x K3
• = 0.2 mV/0C x 2.0V/mVx 5.0 mm/V
• =2.0 mm/0 C
 EXAMPLE
A 0 to 10 bar pressure gauge was found to have an error of ±
0.15 bar when calibrated by the manufacturer .Calculate (a)
the percentage error of the gauge and (b) the possible error as
a percentage of the indicated value when reading of 2.0 bars
was obtained in a test .
Percentage error = 0.15/10. x 100 = ± 1.5%
Possible error = ± 0.15%
∴ error at 2.0 bars = 0.15/10. x 100 =± 7.5%

• The gauge is therefore more unreliable at the lower end of its

range, and alternative gauge with a more suitable range should
be used .
 EXAMPLE
• For a general measuring system where the errors in
the transducer, signal conditioner , and recorder are ±
2 % , ± 3%,and ±4 % respectively, calculate the
maximum possible system error and the probable or
root- sum –square error.
• Maximum possible error = ± (2+3+4)% =±9%
• Root –sum-square error = ± √(22+32+42)%
• = √ 29% =± 5.4%
• Thus the error is possibly as large as ± 9% but
probably not larger than ± 5.4%.
 Transducer
• Resistance transducers
• Resistance strain gauge
• Resistance temperature transducer
• Photo-emisive cell
• Capacitive transducer
• Inductive transducer
• Linear variable differential transformer
• Piezos-electric transducer
• Electromagnetic transducers
• thermoelectric transducer
• Photoelectric cell