MOBILE COMPUTING

KARTHIK S R March 20, 2012

Introdcution to Wireless
This section discusses the fundamentals of wireless transmissions. Topics to be discussed are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Frequency for transmission Signals Antenna Signal propagation Multiplexing Modulation Spread Spectrum satellites

1.1

Frequency needed for Transmission

The medium in wireless happens to be via radio The Transmission is done via dierent frequency bands Related to frequency is the wavelength The radio frequency is spectrum is divided into frequency bands like RANGE 1. VLF - Very low frequency 2. LF - Low frequency Range(30khz to 300khz) - used in submarines 3. MF - Medium Frequency Range(300khz to 3mhz) - used in Radio Stations 4. HF - High Frequency Range(3mhz to 30mhz) - used in TV stations 5. VHF - Very High Frequency(30mhz to 300mhz) - used for DVB 6. UH - Ultra high frequency(300mhz to 3ghz) - used for Mobile 7. MW - Micro Wave Frequency(More than 3ghz)

Figure 1: frequency spectrum

1.2

SIGNALS

Signals are the physical representation of data. Data is converted into signals in physical layer. Communication between the systems can be done through transmission of signals. signals are functions of time and location. The signal for radio transmission is the periodic signal that too sine waves as carriers.

1.3

ANTENNA : isotropic radiator

Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to space for radio transmission Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) only a theoretical reference antenna Real antennas always have directive eects (vertically and/or horizontally) Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

Figure 2: ideal isotropic radiator

1.3.1

Antennas: simple dipoles

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths /4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole,shape of antenna proportional to wavelength Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

Figure 3: Simple antenna

Figure 4: Radiation pattern of dipole

1.3.2

Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range communication possible low error rate Detection range detection of the signal possible no communication possible Interference range signal may not be detected signal adds to the background noise

Figure 5: Range of transmission 1.3.3 MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

The propogation eects leads to channels impairment called multipath propagation. In the above gure the sender is at left and receiver is in the car and 3 paths the signal takes. Radio waves emitted by the sender can travel along a straight line or reected or scattered. The real situation is that the signals can take many path. At the receiver, due to the dierent paths with dierent length the signals reach the destination at dierent times. This is called as delay spread.

Figure 6: Range of transmission

1.4

MULTIPLEXING

1.5

MODULATION

Digital Modulation digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband) ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter dierences in spectral eciency, power eciency, robustness The signal for radio transmission is the periodic signal that too sine waves as carriers. Analog modulation shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier Motivation smaller antennas Frequency Division Multiplexing medium characteristics Basic schemes Amplitude Modulation (AM) 7

 Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation (PM) 1.5.1 Modulation and demodulation

Figure 7: Modulationa and demodulation

1.5.2

Digital modulation

Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): very simple low bandwidth requirements very susceptible to interference Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): needs larger bandwidth Phase Shift Keying (PSK): More complex robust against interference 8

MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL(MAC) - Topic to be Cover Motivation SDMA, FDMA, TDMA Aloha Reservation schemes Collision avoidance, MACA Polling CDMA SAMA Comparison

Motivation
MAC comprises all the mechanisms that regulate user access to medium using SDM,TDM,FDM,CDM. Special MAC are needed in wireless because of hidden and exposed terminals or near and far terminals. One scheme is not purely used in a system but mix of schemes are used in reality.

Problems in wireless networks Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance. The sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver. It might be the case that a sender cannot hear the collision, i.e., CD does not work. Furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is hidden. Hidden terminals A sends to B, C cannot receive A C wants to send to B, C senses a free medium (CS fails) collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails) A is hidden for C 9

Figure 8: Hidden Terminals Exposed terminals B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B) C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use But A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary C is exposed to B

Figure 9: Exposed Terminals Near and Far terminals Terminals A and B send, C receives Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance The signal of terminal B therefore drowns out As signal C cannot receive A

Figure 10: Near and Far terminals

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If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would drown out terminal A already on the physical layer.Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power control needed!

Mechanisms to access the medium

Multiplexing tells how many users can share the medium with minimum or no interference. There are 4 types SDMA - SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS FDMA - FREQUENCE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS TDMA - TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS CDMA - CODED DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

3.1

Space division multiple access

Figure 11: Space division multiple access

3.2 3.3

Frequency Division Multiple Access Time Division Multiple Access

Advantages Only one carrier in the medium at any time Throughput high even for many users

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Figure 12: Frequency Division Multiple Access

Figure 13: Time Division Multiple Access Time can be adjusted based upon the load Disadvantages Precise synchronization necessary 3.3.1 Fixed TDMA

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Figure 14: Fixed TDMA Here time slots are allocated for channels in the xed pattern. Hence the result is xed bandwidth. Each mobile must know its turn, hence no interference will occur. This environment suits well (i) When the bandwidth is xed (ii) When the system needs xed delay. (iii) Constant data rate. 3.3.2 Demand oriented TDMA

1. Classical Aloha 2. Slotted Aloha 3. CSMA Carrier sense multiple access 4. DAMA Demand access multiple access 5. PRMA Packet reservation multiple access 6. Reservation TDMA 7. MACA Multiple access with Collision avoidance 8. Polling 9. ISMA Inhibit Sense Multiple Access 1. Classical Aloha Here the TDMA is applied without controlling the access.Each station can access the medium without a central controlling the access and without co-ordination.If two or more stations access the medium at the same time collision occurs and the data transmitted is too destroyed.This method can be used under light load 2. Slotted Aloha 13

In this method the time is divided into slots.All the senders needs to be synchronized Synchronization is done at the beginning of the time slot Systems are not co-ordinated.Throughput is doubled from classical aloha to slotted Aloha. Well suited for light load.Guarantees for maximum delay 3. CSMA Carrier sense multiple access The medium is sensed before the access.The concept of sensing and accessing the medium decreased the probability of collision.Hidden terminal cannot be detected.Hence collision can occur at the receiver side. (i) Non-persistent CSMA - Station sense the medium and start sending immediately if the medium is free.If the medium is busy the stations waits for a random amount of time and then once again senses the medium.Repeats the above if the medium is found busy. (ii) P-Persistent CSMA - The nodes the sense the medium.Transmit with a probability P, When the medium is free and postponing to the next slot with probability 1-P (iii) 1-Persistent CSMA - All the nodes wishing to transmit data, sense the medium and transmits the data as soon as the medium is idle with probability 1. Results in collision if many wants to transmit data.This method is unfair, hence to introduce fairness the stations waiting for a longer time will be given the chance. 4. Demand Assigned Multiple Access(or) Reservation Aloha

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This method uses the concept of Reservation and Fixed TDMA.During the reservation periods the stations can reserve future slots in the transmission period.Collisions can occur during the reservation period only. 5.PRMA Packet Reservation Multiple Access

Figure 15: Packet Reservation Multiple Access PRMA is an implicit reservation scheme. The slots are reserved according to the scheme described below: Frame is divided into slots.The frame is repeated in time with xed TDMA.The Base station broadcasts the status of each slot to the mobile stations.All the stations receive this broadcast and deter minus which slot is free and which slot is occupied.once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is automatically assigned to this station in all following frames as long as the station has data to send.competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot was empty in the last frame. 6. Polling This scheme is a centralized scheme.In this scheme there is one master and many slave stations.The master polls the slaves according to any one of the schemes like that of round robin.There is contention phase

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and transmission phase In the contention phase the master can poll the slaves to reserve the transmission phase. 7. ISMA Inhibit Sense Multiple Access The medium is detected by inhibition.The Base station signals a medium busy via busy tone on the down link.When the medium is free the busy tone stops The uplink is not co-ordinated.The Base station acknowledges the successful transmission.In case when the acknowledge is missed the mobile devices can conclude a collision. 8. MACA - collision avoidance

MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling packets for collision avoidance.RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is ready to receive.Signaling packets contain - sender address,receiver address,packet size

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Figure 16: Code Division multiple Access

3.4 3.5

Code Division multiple Access Comparison of SDMA,TDMA,FDMA,CDMA

General concept of Cellular system

The following concept holds when cell system follows SDM For mobile communication transmitter is needed The transmitter is called as base station The base station covers certain area called cell. The radius of the cell can be from metres, tens of metres,kilometers. The shape of the cells is assumed to be circle or hexagon. The real shape depends upon environment, weather and load. Because of this reason of coverage there are thousands of base stations throughout. The drawback is in the interference. Hence never use the same frequency at the same time within the Interference Range. 17

Figure 17: comparision of SDMA,TDMA,FDMA,CDMA

4.1

Advantages of cell structures:

Higher capacity, higher number of users Less transmission power needed More robust, decentralized Base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

4.2

Problems:

Fixed network needed for the base stations

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 Handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary Interference with other cells

4.3

Methods to create cell patterns

Clusters - Cells are combined to form clusters. types: 1. Three cell forming a cluster. 2. Seven cells forming a cluster.

4.4

Assignment of frequency to cells

Fixed frequency assignment: certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell problem: dierent trac load in dierent cells Dynamic frequency assignment: Base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already used in neighbor cells More capacity in cells with more trac Assignment can also be based on interference measurements

Figure 18: Frequency Planning

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4.5

Cell breathing

Figure 19: Cell breathe When cellular system use CDM, the cell planning faces a problem of cell size depending upon the load, under the scenario the cells are said to breathe.The concept of breathe is that the cells can cover a large area under light load and size shrinks under heavy load.

4.6

Advantages of Cellular Systems with small cells

1. Higher Capacity : With SDM the frequency can be reused. Frequency reuse is feasible if the two tranmitters are far away Small cells allow more users. 2. Less Transmission Power : Power is problematic for the mobile/hand held devices. The devices which are closer to the base station needs less tranmission power. 3. Local interference: In small cells the mobile and base station need to cater only the local interference. In the case of large cells they have to cater more interference problems.

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4. Robustness: Cellular systems are decentralized. If one antenna fails it aects only small area.

4.7

Disadvantages

1. Infrastucture : Cellular systems need complex infrastructure to connect all base stations. Eg. Antenna, Location registers, switches are needed, which makes the system costly. 2. Handover : As the cell size is small more number of handover is needed. Handover means, when quality is low, the mobile needs to be handed over from one transmitter to another. 3. Frequency : As the frequency is reused between transmitters, to avoid the interference the frequency has to be distributed carefully. More over only limited number of frequencies are available.

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