Introduction Heat Balance Heat Exchanger Low Grade Heat Principally, no heat (energy) should be wasted Only unrecoverable

le heat should go to atmosphere Heat Sink A cooling tower is the FINAL HEAT SINK Why Water Inexpensive Abundance, readily available Easy to handle; non-toxic Higher heat carrying capacity per unit volume Does not decompose Specific Heat Heat absorbed / released by a substance per unit mass per unit change in temperature Alcohol 0.6 Ammonia 0.95 Carbonic Acid 0.75 Olive oil 0.31 Petrol 0.45 Water 1.0 How can we cool water for reuse? Cooling a bucket of water Giving more time to cooling (time of contact) Exposing water to air (area of contact) Replacing air (removing humid air) Providing dry air Title Types of Cooling Towers Types of Cooling Towers Criteria of classification the way air and water come into contact the location of the fan Whether air is pushed into or pulled out of the tower. Types of Cooling Water Systems Types of Cooling Towers Once-through Cooling System Once-through Cooling System Low cost

A large reservoir of water required Natural water bodies

Closed Recirculation System A cooling system within a cooling system Water is cooled by means of a heat exchange with another fluid Water losses are small Open Recirculation System Open Recirculation System Cooling achieved through evaporation Loss of water Increase in salts concentration Water conditioning required Cooling and Spray Ponds Working Principle: Evaporation results in cooling Rate of evaporation exposed surface area Low cost and simplest method of cooling Least efficient method Moist air not replaced Lesser area of contact between water and air Cooling Towers Working Principle: Evaporation results in cooling Rate of evaporation area and time of contact Most advance cooling water system Provide: Increased area of contact Increased time of contact Natural Draft Towers Also called hyperbolic towers Very large hyperbolically shaped chimneys Used for high flow rates Usually at nuclear power stations Chimney effect : Air rises upward and accelerates Fans are not necessary Hyperbolic Tower Mechanical Draft Towers More widely used Utilize large fans to force air through water Water falls downward over fills Increase in the contact time maximize heat transfer

Independent of wind velocity - Additional power needs - Maintenance of fans / motors Two types

Forced Draft Fan mounted at the base (+) Fan is located outside the tower. Easy access (+) Fan is not subject to corrosive condition which exist at hot, humid top area of tower (-) Low exit air velocity. Excessive re-circulation of humid exhaust vapour into suction Forced Draft Induced Draft Most common type (+) High velocity of air at top Minor chance of air recirculation Counter flow Towers Air and water flow in opposite directions Water falls vertically down Air travels vertically up More efficient maximum enthalpy potential Increased fan horsepower air flow in direct opposition to the water flow Counter flow Towers Cross flow Towers Water flows vertically down while the air flows horizontally Considerably popular Low operational cost Low initial cost Crossflow Towers Cooling Tower Components and Their Functions Components Basin Drift Eliminators Fans Pumps Fills / Packing Stacks Nozzles / distributors Cooling Tower Basin

 Storage Make-up water failure Return water failure NPSH for cooling water pumps Sump for chemical treatment Distribution System Arrangement which distribute the hot circulating water within the tower Include headers, nozzles, and flow-regulating devices Cells Smallest subdivision can function as an independent unit with regard to air and water flow have independent fan and distribution system Fans Vibration Cutout is a control device used to shut down the fan motor when excess vibration is sensed Blades Stainless steel, aluminum, fiber glass Fan Pitch The angle which the blades of a fan make with the plane of rotation Fills Fills are placed below the spray nozzles and above the air inlet Provide heat transfer surface Function: slow down the falling water (increase contact time) break the falling water into droplets present the maximum water area for air contact Fills History: Originally, random timber Ordered timber splash bars 1930s, filming in place of splashing 1950s, plastic packing Drift Eliminators An assembly of baffles or labyrinth passages built across the tower outlet near the top Air passes through drift eliminators prior to its exit from the tower Drift Eliminators Function: to remove water droplets from exhaust air by imparting several rapid directional changes The heavier water particles collide against the eliminator and drain back into the tower Superior eliminator designs limit Drift losses to <0.002% of the re-circulated flow rate while imparting minimal pressure drop to the air-stream. Louvers

 Passage type assemblies installed at the air inlet of a cooling tower Control water splash out Promote uniform air flow through the fill Nozzle Used for controlled distribution of water to packing Stack An extended fan cylinder whose primary purpose is to achieve elevation of the discharge plume

How can air at 78 F cool water to 70 F?

Heat Transfer Driving Force for Heat Transfer Temperature Difference Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Conduction Convection Radiation Conduction Heat transfer by means of molecular agitation within a material without any motion of the material as a whole Q = m cp T Q = Rate of heat transfer m = Mass cp = Specific Heat Capacity T = temperature difference Conduction Convection Heat transfer due to fluid motion Q = U A Tm Where; Q = Rate of heat transfer, Btu/hr U= Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr/ft2/F A = Heat Transfer Surface Area, ft2 Tm = Log mean temperature difference between fluids, F Convection Radiation Evaporation Evaporation Definition: Long been used to transfer heat to the atmosphere Our own bodies provide the best example Evaporation of 1 kg of water takes away ~2300 KJ in the form of latent heat Evaporation of one pound of water takes away ~1000 BTUs in the form of latent heat Rate of Evaporation Surface Area of water Humidity of air Temperature of water

 Removal of humid air Reduction of surface pressure Psychrometry Study of gas-vapour mixtures Most common example of gas-vapour mixture: Air-water mixture Terminology of Psychrometry Absolute Humidity Mass of water vapour / mass of dry air Saturation Humidity Air gets saturated with water vapour when: Partial pressure of water vapour in air at given temperature equals The vapour pressure of water at that temperature Temperature at these conditions is called Saturation Temperature Terminology of Psychrometry At saturation humidity Wet and dry bulb temperatures are same Air will no longer accept water No evaporation Only sensible heat is exchanged Terminology of Psychometric Dew Point The saturation temperature Relative humidity Absolute humidity / saturation humidity Wet Bulb Temperature Temperature by water surface when: The rate of heat transfer to the surface by convection (ambient air) equals: The rate of mass transfer away from the surface (evaporation) Wet Bulb Temperature Wet Bulb Temperature Psychometric Chart Graphical presentation of the properties of water-air mixtures Psychometric Chart Dry bulb temperature Wet bulb temperature Humidity - water content Enthalpy - heat content Relative Humidity Specific volume Title Fundamentals of Cooling Towers Function of Cooling Tower Function: To remove heat from the process Principles of Water Cooling Combination of heat / mass transfer processes:

 Evaporation Convective heat exchange Latent heat of vaporization = 80% Sensible heat = 20% Driving force: Evaporation: difference in partial vapour pressure Convection: difference in temperature Air Water Contact Cooling towers expose: the maximum water surface to the maximum flow of air for the maximum possible time Methods: Packing Air Draft Tower height Psychrometry and Cooling Towers Heat Transfer Dry bulb temperature Heat and Mass Transfer by Evaporation Water carrying capacity of air (relative humidity) Theoretical possible heat removal depends on: temperature of air (dry bulb temperature) moisture content of air (wet bulb temperature) Design Factors Flow rate of cooling water Wet Bulb Temperature Ambient temperatures Make-up Water analysis Range = Inlet temp. - Outlet temp Approach = Outlet temp - Wet Bulb Temp

Design Factors
Heat Load The amount of heat to be removed from the circulating water per unit time Heat load is also an important parameter in determining tower size and cost Range Difference between tower inlet and outlet temperature

Wet-Bulb Temperature The lowest temperature that water can theoretically attain by evaporation Wet bulb temperature is always less than dry bulb temperature.

Wet bulb temperature is always higherless than dry bulb temperature. CW supply temperature is always higher than WBT because: it is impossible to contact all the water with fresh air Wet Bulb Temperature Effect of Wet bulb temperature The lower the wet bulb: the drier the air the more moisture air will accept the more heat the cooling tower will reject Approach to Wet Bulb Temperature The difference between the CW temperature and the wet- bulb temperature of the air Depends on tower design I.e. air-water contact time amount of fill surface (area of contact) break-up of water vapour into droplet Wet bulb temperature - Design Wet-Bulb temperature is an extremely important parameter in tower selection and design Most important parameter in determining both tower size and cost Changes throughout the day and year. Historical meteorological data of that location The highest anticipated wet bulb is used Cooling towers are normally designed for approaches closer than 5 F Controlling Water Quality Controlling Water Quality Water Quality Terms pH Acidity or alkalinity of water Conductivity a measure of mineral impurities Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Evaporate water from the sample, rest is TDS Total Suspended Solids Insoluble particles Hardness Concentration of Ca and Mg salts Impurities Found in Water Dissolved organic compounds compounds of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium. Suspended organic compounds Clays, silt, sand, metal oxides. Dissolved organic compounds

 humic acid Suspended organic compounds Leaves, dead bacteria. Impurities Found in Water Dissolved gasses Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide. Micro-organisms bacteria, algae, fungi Typical Analysis of Make-up Water PH 10.0 10.2 Conductivity (25C), s / cm 300-400 Organic matter, ppm 5-8 Chloride (Cl ), ppm 10-25 Turbidity (SiO2), ppm <5 Total Hardness (CaCO3), ppm 20-50 Sulphates (SO4, SO3), ppm 40-60 Silica (SiO2), ppm 20-25 Typical Analysis of Cooling Water pH 7.6 7.8 Conductivity (25C), s / cm 1000-1500 Chromate, ppm 16-18 ppm Total Hardness (CaCO3), ppm 200-300 Iron, ppm 0.1-0.5 Chloride (Cl-), ppm 150-175 Sulphates (SO4), ppm 250-300 Turbidity (SiO2), ppm 5-20 Silica (SiO2), ppm 30-40 Organic matter (KMnO4), ppm 20-40 Which has better quality? Cooling Water OR Make-up water Why? Due to Evaporation Evaporation Loss Water evaporated into the air during cooling process Approx Evaporation Loss = flow rate x cooling range x 0.0008 Drift Losses Water lost from the tower as liquid droplets entrained in the exhaust air stream Proper tower design can minimize drift loss Approx Drift losses = 0.0002 x water flow Evaporation and Salts Concentration

Open re-circulating system: Evaporation For every 6C decrease in temperature across the tower, approximately 1% of the circulation water will be evaporated Continuous increase in concentration of dissolved solids High salts content corrosion and deposition Given no control, the TDS level will keep increasing Blowdown A portion of the circulating water is continuously wasted to control TDS concentrations How much blow down is required? Concentration Cycle Solids in the cooling water / solids in the make-up water max limit of salts concentration in cooling water is determine by process conditions Example: Solids in the cooling water = 250 ppm Solids in the make-up water =50 ppm Concentration Cycle = 250 / 50 = 5 Blow down Calculation After concentration cycle is determined Blow down may be calculated B= (E - [(C-1) x D])/(C-1) Where: B = Rate of blow down C = Concentration Cycle D = Drift losses E = Evaporation losses Blow down Calculation D = Rate of drift loss D = flow rate x 0.0002 E = Rate of evaporation E = flow rate x cooling range x 0.0008 Blow down Calculation Given: C = Concentration Cycle = 5 m = Circulation rate = 1000 m3 / hr Range = 45 - 32 = 13 C Solution D = 1000 x 0.0002 = 0.2 m3 E = 1000 x 13 x 0.0008 = 10.4 m3 B= (E - [(C-1) x D])/(C-1) B = (10.4 - [(5-1) x 0.2])/(5-1) = 2.4 m3 Make-up Water Water Make-up = water losses Water is lost from the system by: Evaporation Wind age (Drift )

 Leaks in the system Blow down Performance Evaluation Performance Evaluation Water Efficiency Water is lost from the system by: Evaporation Drift Leaks in the system Blow down Water Efficiency = Desired losses / Total Losses Water Efficiency = Water evaporated / make-up water Thermal Efficiency Theoretically possible maximum cooling: Cooling Tower Inlet Temperature Wet Bulb Temperature = CWR - WBT Actual cooling: Cooling Tower Inlet Temperature Cooling Tower Outlet Temperature = CWR CWS Thermal Efficiency =Actual cooling / theoretical cooling = (CWR-WBT) / (CWR CWS) x 100 Exercise Chemical Treatment Chemical treatment of CW system is carried out to prevent: Corrosion Control Definition of Corrosion Various definitions destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment Simple definition: Corrosion is the phenomena that involve reactions which return metals to their oxides Why metals corrode? In nature: metals are present in form of ores a stable, low energy form Metal extraction processes: elevates metal to a less stable, higher energy form Consequently, there is a natural tendency for metals to revert to its former state Types of Corrosion General metallic corrosion Inter-granular corrosion Pitting corrosion

 Stress corrosion cracking Galvanic corrosion Crevice corrosion Erosion Fretting corrosion Many other types Corrosion in CW Systems Following two types of corrosion are commonly observed in CW systems: General corrosion Pitting Chemical Factors for Corrosion Chemical Factors: Dissolved gases Oxygen and carbon dioxide pH value Salts (Dissolved and suspended) content Physical Factors of Corrosion Physical Factors: Velocity of cooling water Temperature Speed of most chemical reactions increases with temperature Other Factors: Corrosion deposits Scale Micro-organisms Biological slime Material Properties and Corrosion Metallurgy of equipment Contact of dissimilar metals Galvanic action Flaws in the crystal structure of the metal Corrosion cells may be set up across grain boundaries. Stress sets up potential difference across the metal surface Mechanisms of Corrosion A single mechanism cannot explain all cases In aqueous systems the process of corrosion involves two electrochemical reactions one location of the metal surface becomes anodic and the other location becomes cathode Anode corrodes to protect the cathode Conditions for electrochemical corrosion process A potential difference on the metal surface A continuous conductive path over which the potential difference is available A mechanism for charge transfer between metallic (electronic) conductor and aqueous (electrolytic) conductor

Potential Difference When a metal is immersed in a conducting liquid, the formation of anodes and cathodes on the metal surface can be initiated from several sources: Lack of homogeneity in the metal Scratches or cracks in the protective oxide film Different concentrations of electrolyte or oxygen Anodic Half Cell Anode: low potential area Metal atoms split up to form a metal ion with the release of electrons Metal ions pass into solution Anodic Oxidation / Dissolution Reaction; Fe Fe+2 (ferrous ion) + 2e Conversion of metal into its corresponding ion The reaction is known as the "anodic half cell reaction Anodic Half Cell Metal loss occurs at anodes For the dissolution of the metal to continue electrons left behind on the metal surface have to be removed This is accomplished by the presence of oxygen and occurs at the cathodes. Cathodic Half Cell Cathode : higher potential areas Reduction reaction No metal being lost from these areas Cathode forms the other half of the corrosion cell Oxygen is reduced in the cathodic area by reacting with the electrons to form hydroxide ions as follows: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- +4OH-(hydroxide ion) Current flows from anode to cathode Rust Formation at Anode Ferrous and hydroxide ions produced in half cell reactions react at anode Fe+2 + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 (Ferrous Hydroxide ) The ferrous ions are further oxidised Fe(OH)2 + O2 Fe(OH)3(Ferric Hydroxide) Ferric ions finally produce the familiar brown rust, hydrated ferric oxide Fe(OH)3 + 2OH- Fe2O3 (rust) + water Corrosion Cell General Corrosion Removal of metal evenly from the metal surface For this to happen the anodic and cathodic areas on the metal surface are constantly changing with respect to one another Pitting Corrosion Anodic and cathodic regions do not alternate Severe corrosion if there is a large cathode and a small anode Dissolved Oxygen and Corrosion The chief causes of corrosion of metals: dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon dioxide

Oxygen facilitates corrosion CO2 lowers pH general acid attack To prevent corrosion it is necessary to eliminate dissolved oxygen Water continually passes over the cooling tower where it becomes saturated with

oxygen Impracticable to remove the dissolved oxygen from the cooling water Other methods of corrosion control must be used. Effects of Corrosion Failure of equipment Reduction of materials strength Leakage from heat exchanger Costly replacements Downtime Product contamination (due to leaks) Methods of Corrosion Control Corrosion resistant materials of construction Controlled scaling Use of Corrosion inhibitors Cathodic protection Biological control Protective Coating Control of Salts concentration Blow down Chemical Treatment Corrosion Resistant Materials Resistant metals such as stainless steel and cuprous nickel are normally too expensive May be used for components including for example heat exchangers Protective coatings can be very successful Plastics too are now used extensively, particularly for tower packing Cathodic protection The tendency of the metal to corrode at the anode is opposed by the application of a counter potential or opposite EMF EMF is generated by: External source such as a battery From the electrons liberated by a readily corrodible (sacrificial) metal such as zinc or magnesium Control Testing Regular control testing is an essential to prevent scale and corrosion Frequency and type of test must be established and reviewed periodically Normally proprietary chemicals are used and the consultants provide details of tests Maintenance Regular cleaning and maintenance will do much to keep corrosion in check Draining a system at regular intervals serves to rid the system of accumulated debris For large systems draining is not always practicable and side-stream filtration is an alternative Corrosion Control and blow down

Greater the dissolved solids higher the conductivity greater the corrosion potential This is particularly true of the chloride and sulfate ions Corrosion Inhibitors It is common to use an inhibitor to control corrosion Inhibitors control the corrosion by: Modifying the electro-chemical reactions at the metal surfaces Corrosion inhibitor provide a protective film of metal oxide: at either the anode or at the cathode Selection of Corrosion Inhibitors Types: Anodic, Cathodic or both Chromates Polyphosphates Zinc Nitrites A wide range of inhibitors available Toxicity and pollution aspects must be taken into account

Chromate Dosing Zinc chromate: Corrosion inhibitor Cr+6 + O-2 Cr2O6 Zn+2 + O-2 ZnO Fe+3 + O-2 Fe2O3 Oxides form passivation film Chromate Carcinogenic: Must be removed from the discharge water Increasing environmental concerns Substitutes have never lived up to chromates for effectiveness and cost. pH Control Ideal pH for maintaining passivation film : 6.4-6.8 pH < 6.4 Protective film breaks; corrosion pH > 7 Calcium salts and iron may precipitate H2SO4 is added to maintain pH

Control of Scale Formation Effects of Scale High insulating value

Lower efficiency of heat exchangers Impedes proper flow. progressively narrows pipe internal diameters roughens tube surfaces higher head pressures an increase in power requirements and costs Accelerates corrosion Heat Transfer Equations

Q = U A Tm Where; Q = Rate of heat transfer, Btu/hr U= Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr/ft2/F QU U=1/R R = Thermal resistance Resistance to heat flow Resistance to heat flow R = r 1 + r2 + r 3 + r4 + r 5 R = Total resistance to heat flow r1 = heat flow resistance of the process side film r2 = heat flow resistance of the process side fouling (if any) r3 = heat flow resistance of the exchanger tube wall r4 = heat flow resistance of the water side fouling (if any) r5 = heat flow resistance of the water side film Salts Causing Deposition Scale Deposition : Precipitation of salts of limited solubility A number of mineral salts may lead to deposition in cooling systems. The principal ions are:Anions Cations Bicarbonate Calcium Carbonate Magnesium Hydroxide Aluminum Phosphate Iron Sulphate Zinc Silicate Salts Causing Deposition Most of these salts will be present in the make-up water Iron and to a lesser extend, aluminum and zinc can be produced by corrosion within the system Phosphate and zinc, and occasionally silicate, may be introduced as corrosion inhibitors. Ca and Mg Salts The occurrence of magnesium salts in deposits is less common Calcium carbonate : the most common constituent of deposits found in cooling systems Solubility of calcium carbonate : ~15 PPM

Calcium bicarbonates also decomposes into carbonate Ca (HCO3)2 + Heat CaCO3 precipitate + H2O +CO2 Metal hydroxides Calcium sulphate may be a problem unless care is taken to limit its concentration below its solubility. Phosphate can form insoluble salts and pH control may be needed to avoid deposition Metal hydroxide can be found if cooling water pH is kept high Iron hydroxide is formed as a result of corrosion but it is converted into hydrated iron oxide or rust. Factors Affecting Deposition pH value Ion concentration Temperature Heat transfer Water composition Chemical treatment Plant design Residence time pH Value Affects the solubility of salts In particular the tendency of calcium to form deposits of carbonate pH is controlled below the point where calcium carbonate will come out of solution pH value of the water is controlled by acid addition Corrosion inhibitors are used to counter the aggressive action of acid pH Value Alternatively, control can be achieved by the use of chemical, such as inorganic polyphosphates, to retard scale formation In general, the higher the pH, the greater the tendency to form mineral salt deposits Many control systems are therefore operated at pH values slightly below the saturation scaling index and corrosion is prevented by the use of an inhibitor. Ion Concentration Salts should not be allowed to concentrate to the level at which they become insoluble Alternatively, deposition of salts may be suppressed by a chemical additive. Another objective: To operate the system at the maximum possible concentration factor to minimize: water losses treatment costs Temperature Every salt has a definite solubility in water Solubility temperature However, in some cases increasing temperature reduces solubility calcium carbonate Metal surface temperatures also affect the rates of deposition by: Thermal decomposition of calcium bicarbonate Solubility limit of calcium carbonate be reached more readily

Heat Transfer Rates of deposition and corrosion increase at heat transfer surfaces More stringent measures are needed to ensure clean metal surfaces Water Composition The mineral content of the water is of fundamental importance in determining the type and rate of deposit formation It is recommended that the calcium carbonate scaling potential or Langelier Index be calculated Chemical Treatment Phosphate is encountered in many corrosion inhibitors, hydrolysis to the ortho phosphate will occur in an open evaporative cooling system Calcium phosphate can form deposits unless the pH value and Ca concentrations are controlled Chromates present no problem, unless the system is subject to contamination by reducing agents such as sulphur dioxide, which will produce insoluble chromium salts Inhibitors containing chromate should be avoided in such cases Plant Design The greater the water velocity, the less is the tendency for deposits to accumulate High flow rates are helpful in keeping surfaces free from scale. Velocities should not be less than 1 meter per second Salts usually precipitated in areas of very low velocity and "dead-legs Provision should be made for flushing these areas. It is desirable to keep heat transfer surface temperatures as low as possible (consistent with the process requirements)

Residence Time
The length of time during which a given volume of water is held in the system, calculated by the expression: Residence time = Total System Volume Purge + Wind-age Losses Methods of Deposit Control Pre-treatment of Water Conditioning Treatment Controlling concentration of salts by blow-down Pre-treatment of Water Remove the salts from the make-up water by some form of softening Conditioning Treatment Addition of sulfuric acid converts some amount of bicarbonates to sulfates Sulphates are more soluble than the carbonates, and can be controlled by blowdown It is usual to control the cooling water at: Total alkalinity of <100 ppm in terms of CaCo3, pH range 6.0 to 7.0 And to apply a suitable corrosion inhibitor. Addition of dispersants to extend the solubility range

Control of Microbiological Growth Control of Biological Growth A variety of living organisms in water Three main groups: (1) Algae (2) bacteria and (3) fungi. Micro organisms can enter through: raw water make up being airborne, can be washed out at the cooling tower. Process contamination Hydrocarbons act as a nutrient and result in high levels of activity in the system. Favorable Environment Following conditions inside a cooling tower are very conducive for growth of micro-organisms: Warmer water well aerated Longer retention time Algae

Flourish only in portions of the system exposed to light and air Restricting the flow of water Form deposits in piping, filters etc Algae will normally form a green or blue/green slimy deposit in sunlit areas

Fungi Extremely large, compared to bacteria Apt to entrap other organisms Resulting in a voluminous deposit Bacteria Slime forming bacteria will form grey/black slimy deposits on wood, concrete and on heat exchanger surfaces Not all bacteria are slime forming The corrosive group includes the sulphate reducing bacteria. They reduce sulphate to corrosive sulphide ion. Corrosive bacteria will usually form a black mass beneath deposits, sometimes evil smelling. Bacteria The iron depositing group are responsible for the formation of hydrous iron oxide deposits Iron depositing bacteria are usually typified by a rust brown slimy deposit The non-troublesome group is important in that it indicates that conditions are favourable for bacterial growths. For determination of organism types and numbers, laboratory microbiological analyses are required Bacteria Some bacteria will oxidize nitrite and nitrate. As nitrite is sometimes used as a corrosion inhibitor and may be rapidly destroyed by these bacteria Effects of biological growths The mere presence of these organisms does not indicate a troublesome condition

Trouble appears when they tends to form slimy deposits, which may also entrap other suspended solids Growth of micro organisms leads to: heat exchanger fouling deterioration in tower performance

Effects of biological growths Promotes corrosion through: Mechanism of concentration cells associated with deposits Results in bio-film formation on heat exchange surfaces Insulating properties far exceed those of an equivalent thickness of scale or corrosion deposits. Selection of Biocide A wide range of biocides available For example Chlorine Sodium hypochlorite Chloro-phenols Amines Organo sulphurs Organo tine etc. Chlorine Very widely used Cheap Can be applied easily either as gaseous chlorine or as sodium hypochlorite Can be applied in the normal pH range of 6 to 8 Sufficient amount has to be added to provide a free chlorine residual of 0.5 to 1 ppm The timber of the cooling tower may also be attacked by excess chlorine. Chlorine Dosing Chlorine and chlorine containing compounds react with water Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl Chlorine hypoxide, HOCl is highly effective Chlorophenates Particularly effective against fungi, algae and nitrite oxidisers Their use however can raise a serious effluent problem. Amines Good general purpose biocides Effective over the normal pH range May lead to foaming problems They do not normally present any effluent difficulties CONTROL OF FOULING MUD AND SILT CONTROL OF FOULING There are two categories of sources which cause fouling External Sources Involves materials that are present in the CW system as a result of factors external to the system We have little control over these factors

Internal Sources Caused by CW system characteristics

External Sources of Fouling Make-up water contamination Airborne contamination from the atmosphere Cooling towers are extremely effective air washers. Air exits a cooling tower much cleaner Leaks from the process into the cooling system Very often the only indication of a process leak is from the cooling water Examples: Silt, clay, mud, natural organics, sand and debris Internal Sources of Fouling Corrosion products Clarifier carryover Calcium, iron or aluminum compounds Microbiological growths Control of Fouling Pretreatment Removal of finely divided suspended matter Cleaning For small systems it is beneficial to wash out the cooling tower sump regularly. Polyelectrolytes are effective for on line cleaning Control of Fouling Side Stream Filtration Continuous filtration to remove Suspended material in water Between 1 and 5% of total recirculation water is passed through the filter Control of Fouling Internal Chemical Treatment Continual addition of a chemical antifoulant will minimise deposition Type of antifoulant used depending on the cause of fouling The use of high molecular weight organic polymers will flocculate the finely divided deposit to give a floc The deposit is therefore removed by the purge control. Fouling Factor Rf = 1/ Uf - 1/ Ui Where: Rf = Fouling Factor Ui = Overall heat transfer coefficient (initial) Uf = Overall heat transfer coefficient (measured)

Design Rf = 0.001 0.002

Monitoring U Value Heat transfer coefficient to be monitored for estimation of fouling rate

Factors affecting U value:

Resistance of tube Geometry of exchanger Film resistance Flow velocities constant Exercise Cooling by Evaporation Assume mass of water = m Water evaporated = 1% of m = 0.01m Heat released in evaporation = mass x = 0.01m x 2300 kJ = 23m kJ Heat released by water = m x Cp x T m x 4.183 x T = 23m T = 23m / 4.183m = 23 / 4.183 = 5.5 C New temperature = 80 5.5 = 74.5 C Exercise Water Absorption Capacity 1) From Chart: Absolute Humidity=78 grains water/lb dry air Saturation humidity=157 grains water/lb dry air 2) Water absorbing capacity=15778 = 79 grains water / lb dry air Specific volume : 13.8 ft3 / lb dry air Water absorbing capacity=79 / 13.8=5.7 grains water / ft3 of air Exercise Water Absorption Capacity 3) Relative humidity: 78 / 157 = 50% Relative humidity from chart = 51% Example Heat Load Heat Load = m x Cp x T =Flow x Cp x Range 3 = 32,000 m / hr x 11 C x 1Cal / gram C 1 m3 = 1Ton =1000 Kg = 1000x1000 gm = 32,000 x 11 x 1000 x 1000 = 352,000,000,000 Cal / hr = 352 Gcal / hr Exercise Blow-down Required Concentration Cycle = 750/250 = 3 Approximate evaporation rate = 10,000 x 25 x 0.0008 = 200 GPM Approximate drift rate = 10,000 x 0.0002 = 2 GPM Blow-down = (E - [(C-1) x D])/(C-1) =(200 - [(3 - 1) x 2])/(3-1) = [200 - (2 x 2)]/(2) = (200 - 4)/(2) = (196)/2 = 98 GPM Exercise - Performance Range= CWR CWS =43-32.9 = 10.1 Approach= CWS - WBT =32.9-27.3 = 5.6 Heat Duty = m x Cp x T

= 28400 x 1 x 10.1 x 1000 x 1000 = 286.84 Gcal / hr Exercise - Performance Drift Losses = Flow x Design drift = 28400 x 0.1/100 = 28.4 Evaporation Losses = Flow x Range x Tower Design = 28400 x 10.1 x 0.18/ 100 = 516.3 Cycle of Concentration = 200/25 = 8 Exercise - Performance Thermal Efficiency = Range / Theoretically possible cooling = 10.1 / (43-27.3) x 100 = 64.33 Water Efficiency = Evaporation Losses / Total Losses (make-up) = 516.3 / 618 = 83.548